The Art of Logic and Rhetoric, Book
THE ART OF RHETORICK.
RHetorick is an Art of speaking finely.
It hath two parts.
1. Garnishing of speech, called Elocution.
2. Garnishing of the manner of utterance, called Pronunciation.
Garnishing of speech is the first part of Rhetorick, whereby the speech it self is beautified and made fine.
It is either,
1. The fine manner of words, called a Trope, or,
2. The fine shape or frame of speech, called a Figure.
The fine manner of words is a garnishing of Speech, whereby one word is drawn from his first proper signification, to another; as in this sentence: Sin lyeth at the door: where Sin is put for the punishment of sin adjoyned unto it: Lyeth at the doore signifieth at hand; as that which lieth at the Door, is ready to be brought in.
This changing of words was first found out by necessity, for the want of words; afterward confirmed by Delight, because such words are pleasant and gracious to the ear. Therefore this change of signification must be shame fa'cd, and, as it were, maidenly, that it may seem rather to be led by the hand to another signification, to be driven by force unto the same: yet somtimes this fine manner of Speech swerveth from this perfection, and then it is,
Either
1. The abuse of this fine Speech, called Katachresis, or
2. The excess of this fineness, call'd Hyperbole.
Be not too just, nor too wicked: which speech, although it seem very hard, yet it doth not, without some fineness of Speech, utter thus much, That one seek not a righteousness beyond the Law of God; and that when none can live without all sin, yet that they take heed that sin bear not Dominion over them: As, My tears are my meat day and night. Those that hateme are mo in number, than the hairs of my head. Both which do utter by an expresse of Speech, a great sorrow, and a great number of enemies.
The abuse of Speech, is, when the change of speech is hard, strange, and unwonted, as in the first example.
The excess of speech is, when the change of signification is very high and loftie, as in the second Example, and Ps. 6.7.
But the excellencie, or fineness of Words, or Tropes, is most excellent, when divers are,
Shut up in one; or,
Continued in many.
An Example of the first sort is in the 2 Kings: I pray thee, let me have a double portion of thy Spirit: where by Spirit, is meant the gift of the Spirit; and by thy Spirit, the gift of the Spirit like to thine.
The continuance of Tropes, called an Allegorie, is, when one kind of Trope is so continued; as, look with what kind of matter it be begun, with the same it be ended. So in the 23. Psal. The care of God towards his Church, is set forth in the words proper to a Shepherd. So in the whole book of Canticles, the sweet conference of Christ and his Church, is set down by the words proper to the Husband and the Wife. So old age is set down by this garnishing of speech, Eccles. 12. 5,6.
Hitherto of the properties of a fine manner of words, called a Trope.
Now the divers sorts do follow.
They are those which note out,
1. No Comparison, and are with some Comparison; or,
2. No respect of Division, or some respect.
The first is double:
1. The change of name, called a Metonymie.
2. The mocking speech, called an Ironie.
The change of name, is where the name of a thing, is put for the name of a thing agreeing with it.
It is double,
1. When the cause is put for the thing caused, and contrariwise,
2. When the thing to which any thing is adjoyned, is put for the thing adjoyned; and contrariwise.
The change of name of the cause, is when, Either the name of the Maker, or the name of the Matter, is put for the thing made.
Of the Maker, when the finder out, or the Author of the thing, or the instrument wherby the thing is done, is put for the thing made. So Moses is put for his Writings: so Love is put for Liberality, or bestowing Benefits, the fruit of Love: so Faith the Cause, is put for Religious serving of God, the thing caused. Rom. 1. So the tongue, the instrument of speech, is put for the Speech it self. Rule thy tongue, Iames 3.
Of the Matter: Thou art dust, and to dust shalt thou return; that is, one made of dust.
Now on the other side, when the thing caused, or the effect is put for any of these causes. So the Gospel of God is called the Power of God to Salvation; That is, the instrument of the power of God. So love is said to be bountifull; because it causeth one to be bountiful. S. Paul …aith, The Bread that we break, is it not in the Communion of the Body and Bloud of Christ? That is, an instrument of the Communion of the body of Christ. So, the body is said to be an earthly Tabernacle: That is, a Tabernacle made of earth.
The change of Name, or Metonymie, where the subject, or that which hath any thing adjoyned, is put for the thing adjoyned, or adjoynt. So the place is put for those, or that in the place: Set thine house in an order: That is, thy Houshold matters. It shall be easier for Sodom and Gomorra: that is, the People in Sodom and Gomorra. So Moses Chair is put for the Doctrine, taught in Moses Chair. So, all Jericho and Jerusalem came out: That is, all the men in Iericho and Ierusalem. So, before, Sin was put for the punishment of sin: Let his bloud rest upon us and our children: That is the punishment which shall follow his death. So Christ said, This is my bodie, That is, a sign or Sacrament of my body. This wine is the new Testament in my bloud; That is, a Sign or Seal of the New Testament in my bloud. So Iohn saith, He saw the Spirit descending in the likeness of a Dove: That is, the sign of the Spirit.
On the other side, the Adjunct is put for the thing to which it is Adjoyned. As Christ is called our hope. 1. Tit. That is, on whom our hope did depend: So, we are justified by Faith, That is, by Christ, applyed by Faith: So, Love is the fulfilling of the Law, That is, those things to which it is Adjoyned. Hope for the things hoped for, Rom. 8.28. So in the Epist. …o the Eph. The daies are evil: That is, the Manner, Conversation, and Deeds of men in the daies.
Hitherto of the Metonymie, or change of name.
Now followeth the Mocking speech, or Ironie.
CHAP. 2.
THE mocking Trope is, when one contrary is signified by another, as God said, Man is like to one of us. So Christ saith, sleep on; and yet by and by, Arise, let us go: so Paul saith, you are wise, and I am a fool.
This Trope is perceived, either by the contrariety of the Matter, or the Manner of utterance, or both: so Elias said to the Prophets of Baal, Crie aloud, &c. So the Jews said unto Christ; Hail, King of the Iews.
Hitherto appertaineth the passing by a thing, which yet with a certain elegancy noteth it: so Philemon, 19. That I say not, thou owest thy self unto me.
Hitherto of the fineness of words which respect no division.
Now followeth that which respecteth division, called Synechdoche.
A Synechdoche is when the name of the whole is given to the part; or the name of the part to the whole.
And it is double;
1. When the whole is put for the Member, and contrarily.
2. when the General, or whole kind is put for the Special, or contrarily.
So S. Iohn, Not onelyonly for our sins, but for the sins of the whole world. So Righteousness, a member of Goodness, is put for all goodness: so Unrighteousness is put for all manner of sins.
Examples of the second sort, as these: So Israel is put for those of Iuda sometimes: So Nations for the Heathen: A Minister of Christ, for an Apostle of Christ, Rom. 1. A Minister put for a distributer, Rom. 12.
On the other side, one sort or special is put for the whole sort, or general, in the Examples following. In the Lords Prayer, Bread, one help of life, is put for all helps: This day, one time, for all times: so Solomon saith, The thing of the day in his day; That is, the thing of the time, in his time.
So sometimes less is spoken, and yet more is understood; which is called Diminution, or Meiosis: As Iames saith, to him that knoweth how to do wel, and doth not, it is sin: That is, a great sin. So our Saviour Christ saith, If they had not known, they had had no sinne: that is, no such great sin as they have now. Likewise the denial by Comparison: so Solomon saith, Receive my words, and not silver: That is, my words rather than silver: so Paul saith, I was sent to Preach, and not to Baptise: That is, not so much to Baptise, as to Preach.
Hitherto of the fineness of words, which note out no Comparison. Now followeth the fineness of words which noteth out Comparison, called a Metaphor.
CHAP. III.
A Metaphor is when the like is signified by the like: as 1 Cor. The Apostle saith, Doctrine must be tried by fire; That is, the evidence of the Word, Spirit, trying Doctrine, as fire doth Mettals. So Christ is said to Baptize with fire; where Fire is put for the power of the Holy Ghost, purging as fire: so Christ saith, None shall enter into the Kingdom of God, but …e that is born of the Holy Ghost and Water: so Paul calleth him self the Father of the Corinths, who saith, That he begat them in Christ: so he calleth Timothy and Titus his Natural sons in the Faith.
Hitherto of a Trope, or Garnishing of speech in one word, where the Metaphor is most usual; then the change of name; then the Synechdoche; and last of all, the Ironie. Now followeth the …ine frame or shape of speech, called a Figure.
A Figure is a Garnishing of speech; wherein the course of the same is changed from the more simple and plain manner of speaking, unto that which is more full of Excellency and Grace. For as in the fineness of words, or a Trope, words are considered asunder by themselves: so in the fine shape or frame of speech or a figure, the apt and pleasant joyning together of many words is noted.
The garnishing of the shape of speech or a Figure, is garnishing of speech in Words, or in a Sentence.
The garnishing of speech in words, called Figura dictionis, is wherein the speech is garnished by the pleasant and sweet sound of words joyned together.
This is either,
1. In the measure of sounds; or
2. In the repetition of sounds.
The measure of sounds is belonging either to,
1. Poets, with us called Rhymers; or,
2. Orators, with us called Eloquent Pleaders.
The first is the measure of sounds by certain and continual spaces: And it is either,
1. Rh yme; or,
2. Ve rse.
Rhyme is the first sort, containing a certain measure of Syllables ending a like, and these in the Mother Tongues are most sit for Psalms, Songs, or Sonnets.
Verses are the second sort, containing certain Feet fitly placed.
A Foot is a measure framed by the length and shortness of Syllables: For the several sorts whereof, as also of the verses of them, because we have no worthy examples in our English tongue, we judge the larg handling of them should be more curious then necessary.
The measure of sounds belonging to Orators is that which, as it is not uncertain, so it differeth altogether from rime and verse, and is very changeable with it selfe. Therefore in that eloquent speech you must altogether leave rime and verse, unless you alledge it for authority and pleasure.
In the Beginning of the Sentence little care is to be had, in the midle least of all, and in the end chiefest regard is to be had, because the fall of the sentence is most marked, and therefore lest it fall out to be harsh and unplesant both to the minde and eare, there must be most variety and change.
Now this change must not be above six syllables from the end, and that must be set downe in feet of two syllables.
And thus much of garnishing of speech by the measure of sounds, rather to give some tast of the same to the Readers, then to draw any to the curious and unnecessary practise of it.
Now followeth the repeating of founds.
CAP. 4.
REpetition of sounds is either of the Like, or the Unlike sound.
Of the Like, is either continued to the end of, or broken off from the same, or a diverse sentence.
Continued to the end of the same sentence is, when the same sound is repeated without any thing coming between, except a parenthesis; that is, something put in, without the which, notwithstanding the sentence is full. And it is a joyning of the same sound, as Rom. 1. As unrighteousnesse, fornication, wickednesse. And in the prayer of Christ, My God, my God. From men by thine hand, O Lord, from men, &c. Psal. 17.
Continued in a diverse sentence is, either a Redoubling, called Anadyplosis; or A pleasant climing, called Clymax.
Redoubling is when the same sound is repeated in the end of the former sentence, and the beginning of the sentence following. As, Psal. 9.8. The Lord also will be a refuge to the poor, a refuge, I say, in due time. Psal. 81. 14. For this God is our God. But more plain in Ps. 8. As we have …eard, so have we seen in the city of our God. God will establish it for ever.
A pleasant climing is a redoubling continued by divers degrees or steps of the same sounds: As Rom. 8. 17. If we be children, we be heirs, even heirs of God, annexed with Christ. Rom. 8.30. Whom he predestinated, them also he called; and whom he called, them also he justified; and whom he justified, them also he glorified. Also Rom. 9. 14. 15.
And hitherto of the same sound continued to the end.
Now followeth the same sound broken off.
CHAP. 5.
THE same sound broken off is a repetition of the same in the Beginning; or In the end.
In the Beginning it is called Anaphora, a bringing of the same again; As Rom. 8. 38.
Nor death, nor life, nor Angels, &c. nor any other creature shal be able to separate us, &c. So likewise Ephe. 4. 11. Some to be Apostles, some preachers, &c. So Gal. Nor Iew, nor Gentile, &c. So likewise Hebr. 11.1.2.
Repetition of the same sound in the end is called Epistrophe, a turning to the same sound in the end. So Ezech. Behold greater abominations then these. Lament. 3.41. Let us lift up our hearts with our hands unto God in the heavens; we have sinned, and have, rebelled therefore thou hast not spared.
When both of these are joyned together, it is called a coupling or Symplote. As, 2 Cor. 6.4. to the 11. But in all things we approve our selves, as the Ministers of God, in much patience, in afflictions, &c. See also 2 Cor. 22. 23.
Hitherto of the repetitions in the same place.
Now of those that do interchange their place.
They are either Epanalepsis, which signifieth to take back; or Epanados which …ignifieth a turning to the same tune.
The first is when the same sound is repeated in the beginning and the ending, as My son Absolom, my son, 2 Sam. 19. 1.
Epanados is when the same sound is repeated in the beginning and the middle, in the middle and the end, Ezech. 35. 6. I will prepare thee unto blood, and blood shall pursue thee: except thou hate blood, even blood shal persue thee. And 2. Thes. 2. So that he that doth sit as God, in the temple of God, sheweth h…mself that he is God.
Hitherto of the repetition of those sounds which are like.
Now of those that are unlike.
CHAP. 6.
UNlike A small changing of the name, as Paronomasia. A small changing of the end or case, as Polyptoton.
A small change of name is, when a word by the change of one letter or Syllable, the signification also is changed, As, Patience, experience. Rom. 5.4. 19. We walk after the flesh, not war in the flesh. So by honor and dishonor, as unknown and yet known.
A small changing of the end or case, is when words of the same beginning rebound by divers ends: Christ being raised from the dead, dieth no more, death hath no more power over him. He that doth righteousness is righteous. If ye know that he is righteous, know ye that he that doth righteously, is born of him. And of both these there are many in the Scripture, but the translations cannot reach them.
Hitherto of the garnishing of the shape of speech in words.
Now followeth the garnishing of the shape of speech in a sentence.
CHAP. 7.
GArnishing of the frame of speech in a sentence, is a garnishing of the shape of speech, or a figure; which for the forcible moving of affections, doth after a sort beautifie the sense and very meaning of a sentence. Because it hath in it a certain manly majesty, which far surpasseth the soft delicacy or dainties of the former figures.
It is either the garnishing of speech Alone; or with others.
The garnishing of speech alone, is when as the sentence is garnished without speech had to other. And it is either in regard of the Matter; or of the Person.
In regard of the Matter, it is either
1. A crying out, called Exclamation; or
2. A pulling or calling back of himself, called Revocation.
A crying out or Exclamation is the first, which is set forth by a word of calling out: Sometimes of wonder, As, Rom. 8. O the depth of the Iudgments of God! Psa. 8. O Lord, how excellent is thy Name!
Sometimes of pity; also these words, Behold, Alas, Oh, be signes of this figure: As, O Ierusalem, Ierusalem, which stonest the prophets. Somtimes of desperation; As, My sin is greater then can be forgiven. Behold, thou drivest me out, &c. Somtimes of wishing: As, O Lord of hosts, how amiable are thy tabernacles? Somtimes of disdayning: As, Rom. 7. in the end, O miserable wretch that I am, who shall deliver me from this body of sin? Sometimes of mocking: as they which said to our Saviour Christ, Ah, thou that, &c.
Somtimes of cursing and detestation, as in David, Let their table be made a snare, and bow down their back alwaies. Also when this Figure is used in the end of a sentence, it is called a shooting out of the voyce, or Epiphonema; as when the sins of Iezabel were spoken against, this is added at the end, Seemed it a little to her to do thus and thus.
So after the high setting forth of the name of God, David shutteth up his praise with this: Blessed be his glorious name, and let all the earth be filled with his glory. Somtimes here is used a certain liberty of speech, wherein is a kind of secret crying out: As Peter, Act. 3. saith: Ye men of Israel, hear these words. And Paul, 1. Cor. 11. Would to God you could suffer a little my foolishnes, and indeed ye suffer me.
Thus much of crying out…
Now followeth the Figure of calling back, or Revocation.
Revocation is when any thing is calcal back, and it is as it were a cooling and quenching of the heat of the exclamation that went before.
And this is either A correction of ones self, called Epanorthrosis; A holding of ones peace, called Aposiopes…s.
Epanorthrosis is correction, when some thing is called back that went before: as Paul correcteth his doubtfulness of Agrippa's beleefe, when he saith, Beleevest thou. King Agrippa, I know thou beleevest. So, 1. Cor. 15. I laboured more aboundantly then they all, yet not I, &c.
A keeping of silence or Aposiopesis is, when the course of the sentence bygon is so stayed, as thereby some patt of the sentence not being uttered, may be understood. So our Saviour Christ saith, My soul is heavy: what shall I say? John. 12. 27.
Thus much of a Figure garnishing the speech alone in regard of the matter.
Now followeth the garnishing of the speech alone in regard of the person.
CHAP. 8.
GArnishing of the speech alone in regard of the person is double.
Either in Turning to the person, called Apostrophe, or Faining of the per…on, called, Prosopopoeia.
Apostrophe or turning to the person, is when the speech is turned to another person, then the speech appointed did intend or require. And this Apostrophe or turning is diversly seene, according to the diversity of persons. Sometimes it turneth to a mans person; As David in the 6. Psalme, where having gathered arguments of his safety, turneth hastily to the wicked, saying, Away from me, all yee workers of iniquity, for the Lord hath heard the voice of my petition.
Sometimes, From a man to God, as Psal. 3. David being dismayed with the number of his enemies, turneth himself to God, saying: But thou art my buckler, &c.
Sometimes to unreasonable creatures without sense. Esai. 1. & Esai. 20.1.
Prosopopoeia or a feigning of the person, is whereby we do feigne another person speaking in our speech; And it is double; Imperfect, and Perfect.
Imperfect is when the speech of ano-person is set downe lightly and indirectly, As in the Psal. 10. David bringeth in the wicked, Who say unto my Soul, Fly as the Bird unto yonder hill.
A perfect Prosopopoeia is when the whole feigning of the person is set down in our speech, with a fit entring into the same, and a leaving it off. So Wisd. Pro. 8. Where the entrance is in the first Verses, her speech in the rest of the Chapter.
Hitherto of the figures of sentences concerning one speaking alone.
Now follow the other, which concerne the speeches of two.
CHAP. 9.
THey which concerne the speeches of two, are either In Asking; or in Answering.
That of Asking, is either in Deliberation; or, in preventing an Objection.
Deliberation is when we do ever now and then ask, as it were, reasons of our consultation, whereby the minde of the hearers wavering in doubt, doth set downe some great thing.
This deliberation is either in Doubting; or in Communication.
A Doubting is a deliberating with our selves, as Paul. 1. Philip. 22. doubting whether it were better to die then to live, he garnisheth his speech on this manner: For I am greatly in doubt …o… both sides, desiring to be loosed, and to be with… Christ, which is best of all: neverthelesse, to abide in the flesh is m…re needfull for you.
Communication is a deliberation with others. Gal. 3. 1,2. O foolish Galatians, who hath bewitched you, &c.
And hitherto of the figure of speech between two, called Deliberation.
Now followeth the figure of speech between two, called the preventing of an Objection, or occupation.
Occupation is when wee do bring an objection, and yeeld an answer unto it: Therfore this speech between two in the first part, is called the Setting down of the Objection or Occupation. In the later part, an Answering of the Objection, or the subjection: as Rom. 6. What shall we say then? Shall we continue still in sin that grace may abound? In which words is set downe the Objection: the answering in these words, God forbid. And here this must be marked, that the Objection is many times wanting, which must be wisely supplyed by considering the occasion and answere of it: As, 1. Tim. 5. They will marry, having condemnation. Now least any might say, what, for marrying? He answereth: No, For denying their first faith.
Hitherto of the figures of Asking.
Now followeth the figures of Answering.
They are either in Suffering of a deed, called Permission … or, Granting of an argument, called concession.
Suffering of a deed or permission is, when mockingly we give liberty to any deed; being never so filthy, as Rev. Let him that is filthy be filthy still… And 1. Cor. 14. If any be ignorant, Let him be ignorant.
Concession or granting of an argument is, when a argument is mockingly yeelded unto, as, Eccle. 11. Rejoyce, O young man in thy youth, and let thy heart chear thee, &c.
[Hitherto of the first part of Rhetorick, of the garnishing of Speech: the second part, which is the garnishing of Vtterance, because it is not yet perfect (for the precepts for the most part pertain to an Orator) which when it shal be perfect, it shall either only contain common precepts for the garnishing of Utterance in all, or also proper precepts for the same in Magistrates, Ambassadours, Captains, and Ministers; therefore untill it be so perfected, we think it unnecessary to be translated into English.
Although the Rules of SOPHISTRY be needlesse for them that be perfect in LOGICK; yet because the knowledge of them bringeth some profit to young beginners, both for the ready answering of the subtil arguments, and the better practising of Logick and Rhetorick, we have thought good to turn it into the English Tongue.
SOphistry is the feigned art of Elneches, or coloured reasons.
A colourable reason, or Elench, is a shew of reason to deceive withall.
It is either When the deceit lyeth in …he Words; or in the default of Logick, …alled a Sophism.
In words is, either when the deceit…eth in one word; or in Words joyned …ogether. if it were, it should be, Whosoever.
In one word, is either the darknesse of a word; or, the doubtfulnesse of a word.
The darknesse of a word, or an insolencie deceiveth, when by a reason the meaning is not understood, whether the strangenesse be through the oldnesse, newnesse, or swelling vanity of the words; and of the last sort, is that spoken of in 2 Pet. 2. 18.
By this fallacie the Papists conclude, the Fathers to be on their side, for deserving by good works.
Whosoever saith mans merits are crowned, they say mans works do deserve.
But the Fathers say, mans merits are crowned.
Therefore the Fathers say, mans works do serve.
Where Merits is an old word, put for any works done under the hope of reward, whether it come by desart, or freedom of promise.
Doubtfulnesse of a word, Likenesse of name, is either called Homonymia; or by a Trope or finenesse of speech.
The Likenesse of name, or Homonymia, is when one word is given to signifie divers things: As,
He that believeth shall be saved.
The Hypocrites to whom our Saviour Christ would not commit himself, believed.
Therefore they shall be saved.
Where faith doth note out both a justifying faith, and a dead faith.
Doubtfulnesse by a Trope, is when a word is taken properly, which is meant figuratively, or contrarily: As
That which Christ saith is true.
Christ saith that bread is his body.
Therefore it is true.
Where by body is meant the Signe or Sacrament of his body.
Unto the first, a perfect Logician would answer, that the proposition is not an axiome necessarily true, according to the rule of truth, because of the doubtfulnesse of the old and new signification of merit. And if the word be farre worn out of use, that it be not understood, then the answer must be, I understand it not, or put your axiome in plain words.
To the second, he would answer, that the proposition or first part, is not according to the rule of righteousnesse, because the proper subject and adjunct are not joyned together: which hath justifying faith, or believeth sincerely, shall be saved; and then the assumption being in the same sense inferred, is false.
Unto the third he would answer, that the assumption is not necessarily true, because if the word Body be taken properly, it is not then true that is set down: but if it be taken figuratively, it is true, and therfore would bid him make the assumption necessarily true, and then say, Christ faith in proper words, It is my body; and then it is false.
Hitherto of the fallacies in single words.
Now of those that are joyned together.
It is either Amphibolia, or the doubtfulnesse of speech: or, Exposition, or u…apt setting down of the reason.
The first is, when there is doubtfulnesse in the frame of speech; as thus, If any obey not our word by a letter, note him: where some referre by a letter, to the first part of the Sentence, and some to the later, where the signification of the word, and right pointing doth shew, that it must be referred to the first.
The answer is, that the right & wise placing of the Sentence is perverted.
U…hap… setting down of the Rea…on, is, when the parts of the question …nd the reasons intreated, is not set …own in fit words: as,
All sinne is evill.
Every child of God doth sinne.
Therefore every child of God is evill.
Here the answer according to Lo…ick, is that the assumption doth not …ke the argument out of the proposi…ion, but putteth in another thing, and …o it is no right frame of concluding, …s appeareth by the definition of the …ssumption.
Hitherto of the deceits of reason which lie in words.
Now of the default of Logick, called Sophisme.
It is either Generall, or Speciall.
The Generall are those which cannot be referred to any part of Logick.
They are either begging of the que…tion, called the petition of the principle, or bragging of no proof.
Begging of the question is when nothing is brought to prove but the question, or that which is doubtful: As,
That righteousnesse which is both by faith and works, doth justifie.
But this righteousnesse, is inherent righteousnesse: Ergo.
Here the proposition in effect is nothing but a question.
If together with the bloud of Christ we must make perfect satisfaction for our sins, before we come to Heaven.
Then there must be purgatory for them that die without perfection.
But the first is so: Ergo. Where the argument they bring is as doubtfull, and needeth as much proofe as the question.
The answer is this out of the definition of the Syllogisme that there is no new argument invented, therefore it cannot be a certain frame of concluding.
Bragging of no proofe, is when that which is brought is too much, called Redounding.
It is either impertinent to another matter, called Heterogenium; or a vain repetition, called Tautologia.
Impertinent, or not to the purpose, is when any thing is brought for a proofe, which is nothing near to the matter in hand, whereunto the common proverb giveth answer; I ask you if chee…e, you answer me of chalk.
A vain repetition is, when the same …hing in effect, though not in words, is repeated; as they that after long time of prayer say, Let us pray. And this fallacie… our Saviour Christ condemneth in prayer, Mat. 5. and this is a fault in Method.
Speciall are those which may be referred to certain parts of Logick, and …hey are of two sorts.
Such as are referred to the spring of reasons, called invention; or to judgement.
Those referred to Invention are, when any thing is put for a reason, which is not, as no cause for a cause, no effect for an effect, and so of the …est.
In the Distribution this is a proper fallacie, when any thing simply or generally granted, thereby is inferred a certain respect or speciall not meant nor intended: as,
He that saith, there are not seven Sacraments, saith true.
He that saith, there are onelyonly three, saith, there are not seven.
Therefore he that saith, there are three, saith true.
The right answer is, that the proposition is not necessarily true, for there may be a way to say, there are not seven, and yet affirm an untruth.
Fallacies of judgement are those that are referred to the judgement of of one sentence, or of more.
Of one Sentence, either to the Proprieties of an Axiom; or to the Sorts.
To the proprieties, as when a true is put for a false, and contr…rily: and affirmative for a negative, and cont…arily. So some take the words of Sain… Iohn, I do not say concerning it, that you shall not pray, for no deniall; when as it doth deny to pray for that sin.
To the Sorts are referred, either to the Simple, or Compound.
The first when the generall is taken for the speciall, and contrarily. So the Papists by this fallacy do answer to that generall saying of Paul; We are justified by faith without the works of the law. Which they understand of works done before faith, when that was …ver called in doubt.
The fallacies which are referred to a compound Axiome, are those which are referred either to a disjoyned, or knitting Axiome.
To a disjoyned axiome when the parts indeed are not disjoyned: As, Solomon was either a King, or did bear rule.
To a Knitting axiome is, when the parts are not necessarily knit together, As,
If Rome be on fire, the Popes chayre is burnt.
And hitherto of the first sort of fallacies referred to judgment.
Now followeth the second.
And they be either those that are referred To a Syllogism.; or To Method.
And they again are Generall, and Speciall.
Generall which are referred to the generall properties of a Syllogisme.
It is either when all the parts are Denied; or are Particular.
All parts denied: As,
No Pope is a Divell.
No man is a Divell.
No man is a Pope.
Therefore.
And this must be answered, that it is not according to the definition of a Negative syllogisme, which must have alwayes one affirmative.
All particular: As,
Some unlawfull thing must be suffered, as namely that which cannot be taken away.
The stews is some unlawfull thing.
Therefore the stews must be suffered.
This is answered by the definition of a speciall syllogism, which is that hath one part generall.
The speciall are those which are Simple, or Compound.
The Simple is of two sorts.
The first is more Plain.
The second less Plain.
More plain is when the assumption is denied, or the question is not particular: As,
Every Apostle may preach abroad:
Some Apostle is not a Pope,
Therefore.
Some Pope may not preach abroad.
Also.
Every Pope is a Lord:
Some Pope may give an universall licence.
Therefore every Lord may give an universal licence.
Less plain hath one fallcy in cōmon when the proposition is speciall: As,
Some player is a rogue:
Every vagabond is rogue,
Therefore, every player is a vagabond.
Also,
Some player is a rogue:
Every vagabond is a player.
Therefore every player is a Rogue.
The fallacie of the first kind is when all the parts be affirmative: As,
All Pauls Bishops were ordained for unity.
All Arch-Bishops be ordained for unity.
Therefore, all Arch-Bishops are Pauls Bishops.
The fallacie of the second kind is when the assumption is denied: As,
Every puritane is a Christian.
No L. Bishop is a puritane.
Therefore, No L. Bishop is a Christian.
Hitherto of the fallacies referred to a simple Syllogism.
Now follow those which are referred to a compound, which are those which are referred either To the Connexive, or To the disjoyned.
Of the first sort one is when the first part or antecedent is denied, that the second or consequent may be …o likewise: As,
If any man have two benefices, …e may escape unpunished at the Bishops hands.
But he may not have two benefices,
Therefore.
He may not escape unpunished at the Bishops hands.
The second part is affirmed, that the first may be so also. As,
If every ignorant minister were put out of the Church, and a Preacher in his place, we should have good order:
But we have good order, Therefore
Every ignorant minister is put out of the Church; and a Preacher in his place.
Of those referred to the disjoyned, the first is, when all the parts of the disjunction or proposition are not affirmed: As,
Every ignorant minister is to be allowed, or not.
But he is not.
Therefore he is.
The second kind is when the second part of the copulative negative axiome is denied, that the fir…t may be so; As,
A non-resident, is either a faithfull, or unfaithfull Minister.
But he is unfaithfull, Ergo, &c.
And thus much of the fallacies in a Syllogisme.
The fallacie in Method is when, to deceive withall, the end is set in the beginning, the speciall before the generall, good order be gone, confounded: And finally, when darknesse, length and hardnesse is laboured after.
FINIS.
End of the text · Petrus Ramus, The Art of Logic and Rhetoric (1651)