The Glory of Free Grace Displayed, Chapter 7
CHAP. VII.
The Glory of Gods Free-Grace further diſcovered; in ſeveral propoſitions. Grace how ſhewn unto mankind in General. The greatneſs and extenſiveneſs thereof. Common Grace offered unto more than the Elect. Special Grace to ſome only. This Irreſiſtible, without the laying any violence on our faculties: Man, though paſſive in converſion, yet not ſo paſſive, as pure matter. Several other Goſpel truths evinced. The Uſes, &c.
FRom what hath been ſaid, it evidently appears, that although our bleſſed Redeemer, was never polluted, or any way defiled by the ſins of the Elect, yet in order to the glorifying Free-Grace, conſiſtently with the magnifying the Juſtice, Truth, Faithfulneſs, and infinite Wiſdom of God, it was neceſſary, that the Lord Jeſus ſhould take on him the guilt of our iniquities, which being done 'twas but Righteouſneſs in God the Father, to lay on him all thoſe ſorrows he underwent: A particular conſideration whereof, cannot but deeply affect the ſouls of truly, ſincere, and ſound believers. But I muſt haſten to what I deſign further on this ſubject, and inſiſton ſome of thoſe ſpecial Bleſſings that are the purchaſe of Chriſts blood. All which, for the greater clearneſs, I ſhall lay down in ſeveral propoſitions, paſſing by thoſe which are moſt evident, and making my ſtay only in explicating and confirming ſuch as may ſeem to ſome obſcure.
Propoſ. 1.
1. That on the account of Chriſt's ſufferings in humane nature all mankind is, in ſome ſenſe, ſo far redeemed from that miſery, in which, antecedently unto the Promiſe of Chriſt's death, they did lie, that they are now in a much more happy condition than the faln Angels, not only upon the account of their receiving at leaſt a temporarie reprieve from everlaſting flames, but alſo becauſe their Salvation is become poſſible.
EXPLICATION.
Faln man, antecedently unto the promiſe of the Meſſiah, being in as helpleſs, and as deſperately miſerable condition, as the Devils themſelves, and as unable to ſatisfie divine juſtice, any other way, than by remaining in chains of darkneſs for ever, Chriſt's ſufferings afford thatrelief unto all mankind, as to deliver them from this miſery that is ſo deſperate; for their ſalvation is not now as impoſſible, as it was before the promiſe of the Lord Jeſus: For the Lord Chriſt ſatisfying infinite juſtice, no one man can truly ſay, that the reaſon why he periſhed is becauſe there was not enough in the blood of Chriſt to ranſom him: for whoſoever doth ſincerely believe, ſhall be actually redeemed from the wrath to come. Our remaining in our ſin is the great reaſon, why the wrath of God abideth on us; ſo St. Auſtin, that great enemie to Pelagianiſm, ſo much envied by the Arminians. "Quod ergo ad magnitudinem et potentiam pretii; & quod ad unam pertinet cauſam generis humani: Sanguis Chriſti Redemptio eſt totius mundi, ſed qui hoc ſeculum, ſine ſide Chriſti, & ſine regenerationis ſacramento, pertranſeunt, redemptionis alieni ſunt." Aug. lib. ad Artic. ſibi impoſit. ad Artic. 1.
Again, "Sed hoc inter malos homines, et Daemones diſtat: quod hominibus etiam valde malis ſupereſt, ſi Deus miſereatur, Reconciliatio: Daemonibus nulla ſervata eſt converſio." Auſt. ubi ſup. ad Art. 6.
2. That what Perſon ſoever doth ſavingly believe, ſincerely repent, and is really a ſound convert, ſhall actually be ſaved in the day of the Lord, Iſa. 55.1. Mark 16.16. Joh. 3.16. Joh. 7.37. 1 Tim 2.3,4. Rev. 3.20. Rev. 22.17.
3. That the helps vouchſafed unto all for the enabling us ſavingly to believe, and ſincerely to repent, are ſuch as will leave all thoſe who, believe not, inexcuſable. For,
1. They who receive leaſt, receiving one talent, have given them ſufficient for the enabling them to do more towards the ſaving their ſouls, than they actually do.
2. If thoſe men do actually improve the common helps vouchſafed them, they may, for ought any man can prove to the contrary, receive ſuch further aſſiſtances, as may have a ſpecial influence in enabling them to turn ſincerely unto God, through Jeſus Chriſt.
For, there is in Scripture, as a motive to ſincere repentance, a who can tell, a may be, or who knoweth but, or a perhaps the Lord may be gracious, Joel 2.13.14. Amos 5.15. Jonah 3.8,9. Zeph. 2.3. Acts 8.22. Call theſe Scriptures half-Promiſes, or not, the encouragement they afford all to improve the received talents, is as great as is given any, to engage in worldly affairs. What greater motive hath the Seeds-man to ſow his ſeed, than a May be he ſhall meet with a good harveſt? what moves the Merchant to ſend aconſiderable part of his eſtate beyond Seas, but a perhaps there may be a good return? what animated Jacob in his great diſtreſſes to go on, when he feared that his Brother Eſau deſigned the deſtroying him, but a peradventure he will accept of me? Gen. 32.26. What was the motive Jeremiah gave Baruch to read in the roll the words of the Lord in the ears of the People, but It may be they will preſent their ſupplications before the Lord, and return? or what other encouragement did the Lord himſelf give Jeremiah to Preach unto Judah, but It may be the houſe of Judah will hear all the evil that I purpoſe to do unto them, that they may return every man from the evil of his way? Jer. 36.2,3,6 & 7. And is a may be, a peradventure, powerful enough to raiſe the hearts of men to great undertakings, as to the things of this life, and yet not ſufficient to oblige us to act for God, and glory? or doth this may be prove a motive ſufficient to engage the Miniſters of Chriſt to endeavour the ſalvation of precious and immortal ſouls, and yet inſufficient for the moving you to the doing any thing for your ſelves? ſurely this may be doth not argue only a Poſſibility, but moreover a great Probability: Thou art therefore, O man! inexcuſable, if thou neglecteſt thy duty, and wilt not ſtrive to enter in at the ſtrait gate, ſince by ſtriving, thou mayſt have an entrance into the heavenly glory given thee; 'tis poſſible, 'tis probable; but if thou wilt not ſtrive for Heaven, nothing more ſure, than that Hell will be thy portion. Oh conſider theſe things and remember, *Si ergo à Juſtitia & pietate quis deſicit, ſuo in praeceps fertur arbitrio; ſuâ concupiſcentià trahitur; ſua perſuaſione decipitur. Aug. Reſp. ad Art. ſibi impoſ. ad Art. 13.That if you die in your ſins, your deſtruction will be of your ſelves, you will be found ſelf-condemned ſinners, to whom the Lord may ſay, How often would I have gathered you together, but you would not! Man's ſin, and conſequently his ruine is from himſelf, and not from the Lord, ſo.—"Quae mala cum homines admittunt, ſuis concupiſcentiis & cupiditatibus ſerviunt, quas ab illa prima voluntariae praevaricationis labe traxerunt."
4. Such is the corruption of humane nature, ſince the fall, as engageth all mankind to ſlight, neglect, ſcorn, contemn, and obſtinately to deſpiſe all the common helps offered us.
It muſt be acknowledged, that man after the fall remains a man, whence whatever is eſſential unto the humane nature, as ſuch, is to be found in him, (i.e.) man is ſtill a living, rational creature, his ſoul is ſtill ennobled with the powers or faculties of underſtanding, and will, he is capable of knowing and willing. Theſe facultiesare not totally eradicated, or rooted out of the ſoul, for that would be to deſtroy it. Man is ſtill man, but a corrupt man, that is, though the natural powers and faculties remain, yet they are ſadly vitiated, in that they are become the ſeat of vicious propenſions, diſpoſitions, and habits: For the Underſtanding hath not only loſt its primogeneal, directive light, and become darkneſs, but the will is alſo ſtrangely corrupted, not in the Arminian ſenſe alone as the Remonſtrants expreſs it,*Act. Scrip. Synod. min. Remonſt. in Explic. 3. et. 4. art. de Grat. &c. who ſay, "Quare libertatem volendi indifferenter tam bonum ſalutare, quam malum in ſtatu lapſûs voluntati adeſſe negamus, quin potius liberum Arbitrium ad bona iſtiuſmodi non modo vulneratum, ſauciatum, infirmatum, inclinatum & attenuatum eſt, ſed & Captivatum, perditum, & amiſſum, vireſ que ejus non modo debilitatae & caſſae niſi reſtaurentur à gratia, ſed & nul." Free-will to what is ſavingly good (ſay they) is not only wounded, and weakned, but without a gracious reſtauration altogether loſt, (i.e.) the Underſtanding having loſt its directive light, and the will being a blind power, cannot embrace what is ſavingly good, not becauſe of any weakneſs in the faculty of the will, but for want of a a Guide to direct it. "In lapſu boni ſalutaris et ſalvifici cognitione deſtituta mens, nequaquam illud ut volendum voluntati monſtrare potuit, nec voluntas illud velle." But this is unſound, for the weakneſs of the will, is not meerly becauſe of the blindneſs of the underſtanding, but, becauſe 'tis ſo ſubjected unto vitious, propenſions, diſpoſitions, and habits. The heart of man naturally runneth out after ſin, 'tis bent to commit evil, 'tis obſtinately reſolved againſt what is ſavingly good, and therefore morally impotent; men ſin becauſe they will ſin, as appears both from Scripture and experience. You will not come unto me that ye may have life, you will have none of my counſel, you will not return, you are a ſtiff-neck'd people, obſtinate and rebellious, whence the common aſſiſtances of Gods Spirit proves ineffectual and if God did not Glorify Free-Grace any further, none, not the Elect would return unto God, for although Common Grace given unto all, is ſufficient to leave all men without excuſe, their non-improvement being their ſin; yet none are thereby effectually engaged to turn unto God in Faith, no not the Elect, who, while unregenerate, are as ſinfully obſtinate, as any; their ſouls being as much polluted with Ignorance, ſinfull defections, inclinations and habits, as others, who are by nature Children of Wrath, as others, and for the ſame reaſon, who are by nature, as ſinful and rebellious as others. Who more vile than Manaſſeh in unregeneracy? and who made more havock of the Church of Chriſt, than Paul didin the days of his Ignorance? Should the Lord leave all the Sons of men to themſelves, they would (notwithſtanding the Common Grace afforded them) run on in ſin to their eternal ruine. Wherefore,
5. As God did from Eternity in himſelf determine, and by Covenant engage to give unto our Lord Jeſus, a Select number, even ſo, in time God glorifieth the freeneſs of his grace, and ſhews himſelf faithful, in giving ſome unto Chriſt.
Whoever duly obſerves what hath been already ſaid concerning Election, and the Covenant of Reconciliation made between the Father and the Son, cannot believe the Lord to be a God of truth, the faithful one, and not conſent unto this.
6. That thoſe who are given to the Lord Jeſus Chriſt, are by SPECIAL grace moſt powerfully, yet ſweetly drawn unto him by the Father. For none cometh unto Chriſt, but whom the Father draweth.
7. God the Father, giving this Select Number unto Chriſt, they are by Faith through the Spirit united unto Chriſt. For God in drawing and giving them unto Chriſt, gives Chriſt, the Spirit, and Faith unto them. They by being givenunto Chriſt, are taken into Covenant with Chriſt, they are Chriſts, and Chriſt is theirs; the Union between them and Chriſt, being a Covenant Union, that is real but myſtical. That Lord Chriſt, that is offered unto all upon their believving, is actually given unto theſe; and as all may have Chriſt if they believe, theſe believe that they may have Chriſt; God, of his infinitely Free-Grace, makes theſe a willing People in the day of his power. Whence all that do turn from the evil of their ways, they muſt aſcribe the whole glory to God, even to the praiſe of his Grace *P…inde, quoniam, Demino in te miſericorditer ope…, jam cidiciſti, in abundantia divitiarum tuarum, non Gloriari: hoc ſupereſt, ut non confidas in virtute tua: (i.e.) ne dep…tes v…ripus tuis, quod ſeculi facultates divitiasque contemans; &—quod viam mandatorum Dei currere …. Haec enim omnia nullatenus haberes; niſi a Deo, manere Gratuitae Donationis, acciperes. Non hoc homini dat natura; ſed Gratia: Non hoc ex qual… te condition is humanae habetur, ſed ex benignitate divinae illuminationis acquiritur, Again Quicquid habes bonae voluntatis, vel bonae operationis, Deo aſſigna, qui dedit Fulgent. de converſ. ad Theod. Epiſt. 6. towards the end..
8. To aſſert, That any, while in unregeneracy, may be united unto Chriſt, or that any, who ſavingly believe, may not be united unto Chriſt, is moſt falſe, unſound, and dangerouſly abſurd.
1. To be unregenerate, is to abide in a ſtate of ſin, altogether Unclean, Filthy and Polluted, at a diſtance from God and Jeſus Chriſt; how then can theſe be One? what, is Chriſt joyned to an Harlot? or can light have any Union or Communion with darkneſs?
2. A believer doth cloſe with Chriſt, which cannot be without Union.
9. Tis both unneceſſary, and unprofitable to diſpute about a moment or inſtant of nature; as to the precedency of Faith unto Union, or of Union unto Faith. e. g. whether Faith, or the Union, is in order of nature firſt; it being evident, that there is no inſtant ſuppoſable, in which, a ſoul, who hath ſaving Faith, is not united unto Chriſt, or in which One united unto Chriſt hath not ſound ſaving Faith. But
10. This Faith, and this union is in order of nature antecedent to an actual imputation of Chriſts Righteouſneſs, and conſequently, before our actual Juſtification in the ſight of God.
Communion preſuppoſeth Union; and therefore, Union muſt precede an actual imputation, which is but the Communication of Chriſts Righteouſneſs unto us. Faith and Union being Simultanecus, and at one and the ſame inſtant, as Union, even ſo Faith, muſt precede the Communication of Chriſts Righteouſneſs, and our actual juſtification in the ſight of God thereby.
11. This Faith, which doth ſo neceſſarily precede, and go before the actual juſtification of a ſinner, is the †Fidem autem hominum, Donum Dei eſſe fateamur; ſine enj…s Gratiâ … currit ad gratiam. Proſper. Aq. Reſp. ad Gal. Object. ad Obj. 8.gift of God, infus'd into the ſoul by the holy Spirit, that doth irreſiſtibly carry on its work.
1. Grace being the gift of God, the firſt thing which the ſoul is capable of in the work of Regeneration, or converſion is the receiving the gift, or infuſed habit; the ſoul doth recipere effectum agentis, which is as much as, Pati, whence the ſoul, the firſt inſtant or moment of converſion, muſt be conſidered as paſſive.
2. This Converting Grace is irreſiſtible; which may be evinced to any unprejudiced mind, that will but conſider, that antecedently unto converſion, the ſoul is obſtinately bent towards ſin. The inclinations of the will, are continually evil, averſe to what is good, and both actually and habitually determined to vanity, for which reaſon, the Spirit, in carrying on the work of converſion, meets with great oppoſition from the ſinner; yea, with ſuch oppoſition, as would altogether impede and hinder the Spirits work, had not the power of the Spirit been great enough to conquer and overcome this habitual obſtinacy of the will; but the power of God's Spirit being greater than that of the Sinner, the Sinner is overcome, and converted. How? but by that Grace that is Irreſiſtible; it being moſt evident, that 'tis naturally impoſſible for finite power to prevail againſt what is infinite; So clear 'tis, that converting grace is irreſiſtible: And ſurely, had it not been ſo, never one obſtinate ſinner, no, not one child of Adam (ſince all are by nature obſtinately rebellious ſinners) would be converted, for ſuch is the nature of our corrupt wills, that they will never yield, until overcome by an overſtrong and irreſiſtible power.
12. This infuſed Irreſiſtible grace is given unto the Adult, ordinarily in the uſe of means, as the preaching of the word, &c. Whence man though paſſive in the firſt moment of his converſion, yet, not ſo paſſive as ſome ſuggeſt.
1. It muſt be noted, that Man in converſion is not ſo paſſive as a Stone when thrown up into the Air: For the infuſion of Grace, being into a Soul, that is, active life, to the end the Soul may be the better prepared for action, the Soul muſt be alſo active in the great work of converſion. The infuſion of Grace into the ſoul, that is, active life, is not like the infuſion of the ſoulinto the body, that is, antecedently to its receiving the ſoul wholly unactive, purely paſſive; No, the Lord doth conſider the nature, he hath given beings, and his actions towards ſuch beings are ſuitable to their natures. As a meer paſſive thing is purely paſſive in its receptions, even ſo what is eſſentially active, cannot but be active in its receptions. To inſiſt on niceties concerning the oppoſition that is between action and paſſion, and conſequently on the ſeeming inconſiſtency, ſome may judge to be, in this expreſſion active reception, q. d. active paſſion, is but to quibble; ſince 'tis impoſſible to ſuppoſe an Eſſentially-active-being to be in every regard, as paſſive as pure matter is. God carries on the work of converſion on man, in a way agreeable unto that nature God hath given him; which is by inlightening the underſtanding, and by ſuſcitating, and ſtiring up the powers of the ſoul to their being duly converſant about their proper objects, influencing, and enabling the will to cloſe with what is propoſed in the word, as good, and accordingly underſtood and believed to be ſo. Although we cannot comprehend how, yet nothing more evident, than that God doth irreſiſtibly, and yet moſt ſweetly, without laying any violence on our faculties, draw us from ſin unto Jèſus Chriſt *This notion is agreeable to the Sentiments of the Schoolmen, as Marius Scrib. de lib. Arb. diſp. 19.qu. 8. doth aſſert. Dionyſ. Carthuſianus in 2. d. 39. q. 2. Capreolus d. 45. q. 1. Concl, 5. Ferrarienſis primo contr. Gent. c. 88. Dreido opuſc. lib. de concordia Lib. arb. et praed eſtinationis 2. p. c. 3. ad primum. All theſe reconciling humane Liberty with the Irreſiſtable Divine Will thus. Dicunt enim Dei voluntatem et providentiam Dei tantae eſſe virtutis & efficaciae, ut licet et nulla potentia & libertas refiſtere valeat, omnes tamen cauſas, quibus cooperatur, ſuaviter moveat, infinitae ſiquidem eſt virtutis & ſapientiae, & cum fit infinitae Sapientiae, ſcit omnia ſuaviter diſponere, licet nobis videantur factu impoſſibilia: cum verò infinitae ſit virtutis attingit à fine uſ que ad finem fortiter, ita ut per infinitam ſuam virtutem ſciat etiam, quae videntur diſſonantia, concordare: et propter Sapientiam ſine praejudicio humanae libertatis effectum ſuae voluntatis ſemper ſortiri. Et Cajetanus iiſdem pene id videtur profiteri. 1. p. q. 4. a 23. & 9.19. ar. 8. docens quod talis eſt cooperatio primae cauſae, quod diſponit omnia ſuaviter, juxta ſcil. modum cujusque, cooperans unicuique. So Auſtin. Et hoc eſt opus ejus, quo continet omnia, & quo ejus ſapientia pertendit à fine uſ que ad finem fortiter, et diſponit omnia ſuaviter. lib. 4. de Gen. ad lit. c. 12..
2. This Irreſiſtible grace is given ordinarily in the uſe of means, viz. the preaching of the word whence Paul muſt go to be inſtructed by Ananias, Acts 9. Philip is ſent to preach to the Eunuch, Peter is ſent to Cornelius, Acts 10. to the end, that by the fooliſhneſs of Preaching many might be converted, 1 Cor, 1.21.
13. It is therefore the great duty of all men ſeriouſlyapply themſelves to the uſe of means, that ſo they may be converted, and turned unto God. For,
1. Our ſouls are Eſſentially-active-beings, and therefore ſhould be engag'd for God, and Holineſs; and not for ſin, and the pleaſures thereof.
2. We are commanded to prepare our hearts in order to our turning unto the Lord, 1 Sam. 7.3. Ezek. 14.6. ch. 18.31. which Scriptures, as they expreſly ſhew it to be our duty to be active in turning unto God, even ſo, moreover, they imply, that, if we are active in our work, God will be graciouſly pleaſed by his bleſſing, abundantly to encourage us therein. All men, even the wicked, muſt pray, they muſt attend on the word, and mind the Salvation of their ſouls, which if they do, who can tell, but that the Lord may be gracious. Thus Peter ſaid unto Simon the Sorcerer, pray God, if perhaps he will forgive the thoughts of thy heart; For when the wicked do pray, and hear the word, although their prayers, &c.—are an abomination unto the Lord, in that they do not pray with that Faith and Love, &c. they ought; yet, even in that they do both pray and hear the word, they are not ſo …minable, as they would be, ſhould they totally neglect theſe duties. For, he, who pray's with an unſound heart, fails as tothe manner of prayer, but he, who prays not at all, fails as to the matter as well as manner, and conſequently is the greater tranſgreſſor: Again, he who prays and hears the word, is in a fairer way of receiving a bleſſing from the Lord, than he, who will neither pray, nor hear the word. In the diſcharge of theſe duties, we may meet with God, 'tis probable, becauſe frequently it hath been ſo; but he who lives in the conſtant neglect of them, is in danger of loſing his immortal ſoul eternally. But remember, that 'tis both duty to pray, and hear, yea, and to do ſo in Faith with hearts ſincerely devoted unto God. We muſt engage in duty, and yet conclude that all the good we receive is of Grace ſo Fulgentius *—Cum timore & tremore tuam ſalutem operare: Nec Lectio deſit operibus bonis: Nec bona opera deſint ſtudio lectionis—In Scripturis S. ſtudium tui cordis impende. Et, ibi ſi fueris; qui ſis, quique debeas eſſe, cognoſce: Ad has ſi humilis & mitis acceſſeris, ibi profectò invenies & Pr…evenientem gratiam, quâ poteſt eliſus ſurgere; & comitantem, quâ viam recti queat itineris currere; & ſubſequentem, quâ valeat ad regni caeleſtis beatitudinem pervenire. Ful. de conv. ad Theodor. Epiſt. 6. Yea the ſame Fulgentius in the ſame Epiſtle doth encourage us both unto our duty, and to give the Glory of all to Free-Grace. Hujus Gratiae adjutorium, ſemper eſt nobis a Deo poſcendum, ſed nec ipſum, quod poſcimus, noſtris viribus aſſignemus: neque enim haberi poteſt ipſe ſaltem Orationis affectus, niſi divinitus fuerit attributus. Ut ergo deſideremus adiutorium Gratiae, hoc ipſum quoque opus eſt Gratiae. Ipſa namque incipit infundi; ut incipiat poſci: Ipſa quoque amplius infunditur, cum poſcentibus datu… ▪ Quis vero poteſt Gratiam poſcere niſi velit? ſed niſi in eo Deus ipſum voluntatem operetur; velle n…tenus poterit..
From the whole that hath been ſaid, 'tis moſt certain, that the manifold grace of God, hath been diverſly extended to mankind in general, and to ſome in particular. 1. To mankind in general, and that in theſe following reſpects.
1. To all mankind, in that, God the Son aſſumed Humane Nature, in which, he ſuffered, and fulfilled all righteouſneſs, to the end mans Salvation might become poſſible. The Lord might have left us all in that helpleſs, and deſperately miſerable ſtate, in which we with the fallen Angels were once fixed: But, God extended the riches of his grace towards fallen man, even, when the leaſt favour was not ſhewn the fallen Angels.
2. To all mankind, in that as the Salvation of all is become poſſible, the Lord moreover affords unto all, ſuch a ſufficiency of help, in order to the doing what is neceſſary unto an actual entrance into the glories of God as leaves all ſuch as remain in ſin moſt Inexcuſable. The worſt of men, who received leaſt, receiving more than they improve, muſt acknowledg, that Grace was afforded them, but they moſt wretchedly rejected it. But then
2. The Grace of God is infinitely exalted, in that it is extended after an eminent manner to SOME in ſpecial; ſome receive Faith, and all ſuch other graces, as are neceſſary to their actual Salvation, who muſt aſcribe the glory of their Faith, Repentance and Converſion, their ſincere Obedience, and final perſeverance to the glory of Free-Grace.
Here I might enlarge, and ſhew how and in what reſpect the Grace of God is exalted, in the Supporting, Refreſhing and comforting the believer, while in this life diverſely exerciſed; But I, deſigning to be ſhort, will inſiſt only on what may clear God from the Reproaches are caſt on him by the wicked, who aſſert that, according to the Opinion of many learned Divines both among the Proteſtants and Papiſts, it may be ſoundly argued, That God doth lay men under a Natural neceſſity, (i.e.) [a neceſſity of the conſequent, or rather of the Effect] of ſinning; which Notion, if true, would ſubvert not only the greateſt part of the preceding Diſcourſe, but even the whole of Religion. The Falſneſs, and Unſoundneſs of which wretched reflection, as caſt on God by the Irrationally-Atheſtical Debauchees of our times, I will attempt to evince in the following Chapter.