Abstract of Logic, Book 2 · Chapter 17
CHAP. XVII. Of Canons belonging to Conſentaneous Places, or Places from whence Arguments are drawn, agreeing with ſome Part of the Queſtion.
Ax. 1. AND firſt of thoſe belonging to the Place of Notation or Etymology; and this has two Canons, and firſt, that to which convenes the Etymology, to that alſo the Name; and that to which the Etymology, not &c. to that neither the Name.
1. §. So one may conclude, ſervari fidem, that is, ones Faith is kept; quia fit quod dictum eſt; that is, we have perform'd what was promis'd; becauſe Fides according to Cicero, ſeems to ſignifie as much as if one ſhould ſay, fit quod dictum eſt; that is, what is promiſed is perform'd, &c. And ſo one may ſay that a thing is not mutual; becauſe not de meo, tuum, that is, from mine, thine, as we have obſerv'd before.
Ax. 2. The Second is that to which the Name belongs, to that alſo the Etymology; but not on the contrary; that is, he to whom the Name belongs, to him, the Etymology: But to him to whom the Etymology (unleſs underſtood in a thorough Senſe) not always the Name. As for Inſtance, to take the Authour's Example; He that is a prudent Man, to be ſure, preſerves Prudence; and that in the general or major Part of his Life. But he that preſerves Prudence, (unleſs in the general or major Part of his Life) cannot properly be call'd a prudent Man, &c. Uncertain therefore are theſe Rules, yet leſs fail they in the Names of Genus's and Species's than they do in thoſe of Individuals.
Ax. 3. The next Place to this is that of Conjugates; and that has three Canons; and the firſt is that to which one Conjugate agrees, to that alſo the other: And that to which one not, to that neither the other. An Inſtance of which is,
1. §. That of Mitio in Terence: viz. Man I am; and therefore I think nothing Human foreign from me. So in the Joques upon Caeſar in Suetonius, it is concluded, Bibulus was not Conſul; becauſe he conſulted not the Republick.
The Words are theſe: Non Bibulo quicquam nuper, ſed Caeſare factum eſt: Nam Bibulo fieri Conſule nil memini.
That is, Nothing has been done lately by Bibulus, but Caeſar: For in the Conſulſhip of Bibulus I remember nothing to have been done.
In the Uſe of which Canon, this Caution only is to be uſed, viz. that a Conjugate only in Word, and not Affinity of Nature, be not joyned: For in thoſe of which one ſignifies a Natural Power or Habit, and the other an Action, the Illation will be very fallacious: For it does not follow he has the Faculty of Seeing; and therefore he ſees or he is drunk, and therefore a Drunkard: Or does juſt things; and therefore he is juſt, &c. ſo in other the like Caſes or Inſtances
Ax. 4. The Second is, of Conjugates; Conjugates are Conſequent; That is,
1. §. As if one ſhould argue in this manner: Logick does thoſe things that are govern'd by Rules of Art; And therefore Logick is an Art, &c. But here 'tis to be heeded, leſt from Concretes by Accident predicated of one another, it be collected alſo, that Abſtracts are predicated of one another: For altho' ſomething is ſweet, which is White, as ſuppoſe Milk, It does not follow that ſome Sweetneſs is Whitneſs, &c.
Ax. 5. The Third is this, viz. that the Conjugates of Contraries, are amongſt themſelves Contrary.
1. §. As if Health and Sickneſs are Contraries; then, to be in Health, and ſick, muſt be Contraries too. And theſe Rules (if in this manner limited) do ſeldom fail.
Ax. 6. The Place from Definition has theſe two Canons; and firſt that to which agrees the Definition to that alſo the Defined. And that to which not the Definition, to that neither the Defined.
1. §. As if one ſhould prove that Logick was an Art, becauſe a Habit Effective with true Reaſon; or not to be a Science, becauſe not a certain Knowledge of a certain thing by its next Cauſe, &c.
Ax. 7. Secondly, That which agrees to the Definition, that alſo agrees to the Defined, and that which not to the Definition, that neither to the Deſined: As if one ſhould argue thus,
1. §. He who, is wont to keep a Mediocrity in all things is happy: A good Man is wont to keep a Mediocrity in all things, and a wicked Man not: And therefore a Good is happy, and a Wicked Man not, &c. But here Heed is to be taken, that that which is ſaid of the Definition as a Definition, be not ſaid of the Defined: As, in this Syllogiſm, viz. Animal, Rational, are two Words; Man is an Animal, Rational: And therefore Man is two Words. But in other Caſes Canons from Deſinition are moſt certain, provided you take Reciprocate Definitions.
Ax. 8. The Place from the Genus has two Canons; and the Firſt is that which is Univerſally Affirmed of the Genus, that is alſo of the Species, and that which is Univerſally denyed of the Genus, that alſo of the Species.
1. §. So you may prove the Sight may err; becauſe every Senſe may err: And Juſtice not to be by Nature; becauſe no Virtue is by Nature, &c. But in this Canon it is to be heeded, leſt that which is ſaid Accidentally of the Genus, and not according to its Eſſence, be in another Acceptation taken of the Species; As if any one ſhould argue in this manner, viz. Animal is a Genus or Triſſylable; Man is an Animal: And therefore Man is a Genus or Triſſyllable, &c.
Ax. 9. Secondly, Taking away the Genus, you take away the Species; or that from which you take away the Genus, you take away alſo the Species.
1. §. As if to prove that the Senſe were not Science. one ſhould ſay it was not a Habit, becauſe if not a Habit, it cannot be a Science; ſince there is no Science but what is a Habit; that is, but what is comprehended under that Genus, &c. The Canons from hence, obſerving the Cautions above-given, are always very certain.
Ax. 10. The next Place is that of the Species, which has three Canons: Firſt, ſuppoſing the Species, you ſuppoſe alſo the Genus; or that to which the Species is attributed, to that alſo the Genus, &c.
1. §. And ſo it may be concluded, that Logick is an Habit, becauſe it is an Art, which is a Species of Habit, &c.
Ax. 11. Secondly, The Species's being all taken away, the Genus is alſo taken away: or that from which all the Species's are taken away, from that alſo the Genus.
1. §. As Friendſhip is not Fortitude, or Temperance, or Juſtice, or Prudence, &c. And therefore not a Virtue, &c. And ſuch an Argumentation as this is a Syllogiſm of numeration of Parts.
Ax. 12. Thirdly, That which to all the Species's, that alſo to the Genus; and that which to none that neither to the Genus, &c.
1. §. And this Canon is the Foundation of Induction, as well the Affirmed as Denyed; Of which we have entreated in its proper Place; to which Recourſe may be had, if the Reader ſhall ſo think fit, for Examples. Now all the Canons of this Place are very faithful.
Ax. 13. The Place from the whole has two Canons; and firſt, the whole being poſited, all the Principal Parts are ſo.
1. §. Or that to which the whole is attributed, to that alſo all the Principal Parts; as, to Sempronius there was Maintenance given; and therefore Clothes, Victuals, and Habitation, &c. I ſaid the the Principal, becauſe the Whole being ſuppoſed, that every the leaſt Part that tends to the Integrity, not Eſſence of it, ſhould be ſo, is not neceſſary.
Ax. 14. Secondly, That which agrees to the ſimilar Whole, that alſo to the Singular Parts of it; and that which not to ſuch a Whole, that neither to any Part of it. As for Inſtance,
1. §. Water by its own Nature is moiſt, and therefore every Drop of it is moiſt. The Heaven is not Corruptible; and therefore not the Stars, &c. Here we are to take heed, leſt what is attributed to the Whole as Whole, be not alſo attributed to the Part. For not becauſe there is Water every where about the Earth, does it follow that every Drop of it is every where about the Earth, &c. Now the Canons of this Place are very Certain.
Ax. 15. The Place from Parts has four Canons: And firſt, all the Parts being poſited and joyned, the Whole muſt be alſo poſited too: As for Inſtance,
1. §. Caeſar occupied Belgium, and Aquitaine, and Celtica, and therefore all Gallia: I ſaid united, becauſe poſiting all the Parts of a Whole, and thoſe Parts not united, the Whole is not yet poſited. As for Inſtance; a Houſe, which, you know till the Materials are joyned, as well as provided, becomes not a Houſe, &c.
Ax. 16. The Second is taking away the Principal Part, you take away alſo the Whole. As for Inſtance,
1. §. Infants are deſtitute of the Knowledge, of Chriſt, and therefore of Faith. I ſaid the Principal Parts, becauſe the Hand taken away, the Man does not die, but becomes only lame: but let it be the Head, or the other Principal Part, and he totally expires, &c.
Ax. 17. Thirdly, That which agrees to all the Parts; that alſo to the Whole: And that which to none, that neither to the Whole, &c.
1. §. As for Inſtance; the Law, Prophets, Goſpels, with the Writings of the Holy Apoſtles, are all Divinely inſpir'd: And therefore the whole Scripture is Divinely inſpir'd: The Walls, Columns, Beams, Rafters, Roof of the Houſe, &c. ſeem not to be old: And therefore the Houſe ſeems not to be old, &c.
Ax. 19. Fourthly, That which agrees to a ſimilar Part, that alſo to the Whole; and that which agrees not to the ſimilar Part, that neither to the Whole.
1. §. As for Inſtance; Every Drop of Water is moiſt: And therefore the Water it ſelf is ſo. The Stars are incorruptible: And therefore the Heavens, &c. Here one is to take Care, that that which agrees, to the ſimilar Part only by ſome External Cauſe, and not the Condition of its proper Nature, be not Concluded of the Whole. For it does not follow from every Drop of Water's being round that the whole Element is ſo. For beſides that no Element, beſides the Earth, is of any determinate Figure, even the Rotundity of the Drops does not proceed from the Nature of the Water but the Paucity of their Matter, by which it comes to paſs that they cannot flow. In other Caſes the Canons of this Place are very certain.
Ax. 19. The Place from the Cauſes in general has this Canon, viz. that the Cauſe being Actually put, it is neceſſary that the Cauſed ſhould be ſo too: And ſo Vice versà.
1. §. The Cauſe in Act is ſaid to be that which Cauſes or Exerciſes its Office and Cauſality. Now it would imply a Contradiction for one to ſay, that the Cauſe cauſes, and yet that the Cauſed is not Cauſed; as for Example, That the Workmen are Building, and yet that the Houſe is not; or that the Houſe is a Building, and yet that there are no Workmen, &c.
Ax. 20. The Place from Matter has two Canons; and firſt, the Matter being taken away, the Compoſed, and alſo its Material Form are ſo.
1. §. As, if you ſhould prove, where there is no Wood, there can be no Ships; or becauſe Stones have no Organical Body, neither can they have a Soul. I ſaid Material Form, becauſe Immaterial, ſuch as is the Humane Soul by taking away the Matter, cannot be taken away, &c.
Ax. 21. Secondly, Such as is the Matter, ſuch is alſo the Compoſed.
1. §. As the Statue is of Worm-eaten, or rotten Wood; and therefore it ſelf alſo is ſo. This Canon takes Place only in Things made of Art: For in other things it will be fallacious.
Ax. 22. The Place from Form has this Canon, viz. Poſiting the Form; the Compoſed alſo is poſted, and that taken away, the Compoſed is alſo taken away.
1. §. As, the Pigmies have a Rational Soul, and therefore they are Men: The Stars have not a Soul; and therefore they do not live. This Canon is altogether irrefragable, provided the firſt Part be underſtood of Material Form: For, poſiting the Rational Soul, that the Man ſhould be ſo too, is not neceſſary: but yet this, viz. That he ſhould be a Man if he has a Rational Soul, is requiſite and neceſſary, &c.
Ax. 23. Place from Efficient has two Canons; and the firſt of them is, Such as the Cauſe is, ſuch is the Effect, &c.
1. §. And thus God is very good; and therefore his Works are ſo. This Canon is deceitful, unleſs cautiouſly uſed: For firſt it ſails in Cauſes that are by Accident. For neither does it follow, that a Son is good, becauſe his Father is ſo; nor yet bad: For a Son is not produc'd by his Father as he is good or bad, but as he is a Man, &c.
And ſo it fails in Equivocal Cauſes: For it does not follow that the Sun is animated, although it animates the World; nor that the Whetſtone is ſharp, although it ſharpens Iron. Laſtly, in Cauſes Voluntary, when making uſe of their utmoſt Endeavours, they do ſomething which does not correſpond to their Skill or Art, As when a Painter paints leſs elegantly than becomes his Art, &c.
Ax. 24 Secondly, That which is the Cauſe of the Cauſe, is alſo the Cauſe of the Cauſed, &c.
1. §. As Virtue is partly from Nature, partly from Inſtitution, partly from Cuſtom: Virtue is the Cauſe of civil Happineſs: And therefore civil Happineſs is partly from Nature, partly from Inſtitution, partly from Cuſtom, &c. This Canon has Place only in Cauſes Subordinate of themſelves: For in Cauſes Subordinate by Accident, it for the moſt part fails. For it does not follow, becauſe God is the Cauſe of our Will, and our Will is the Cauſe of Sin, that therefore God is the Cauſe of Sin. &c.
Ax. 25. Place from the End has this Canon, viz. That the End being put, there are alſo put the Means to that End.
1. §. And ſo Ovid concludes that Man was made with an upright Countenance; becauſe to contemplate the Heavens; deeming that to be the End of an upright Figure.
The Words of the ſweet Poet are theſe,
Omnia cùm ſpectent Animalia caetera Terram,
Os homini ſublime dedit, Caelùmque tueri
Juſſit; & erectos ad ſydera tollere Vultus.
Which admirable Pare-Royal may be rendred in theſe two ſorry Couplets in this manner,
And whereas other Animals behold
With down-caſt Looks this Sublunary Mold;
To Man he gave a ſtately upright Frame,
And bad him view thoſe Heav'ns from whence he came.
Which tho' they fail as to their Verſifcation, yet may they ſerve to ſhew in ſome meaſure the Meaning of that memorable Paſſage of excellent Ovid.
Now the Means are often expreſs'd by a Negation of thoſe things which impede the End: As, the Pupil or Apple of the Eye, is to admit all Colours; and therefore to be without Colour. The Elect muſt be ſaved; And, therefore, muſt not Sin unto Death, &c. But now tho' the End being put, it is neceſſary that the Means ſhould be ſo; yet that the End not being put, they ſhould not be ſo, is not always neceſſary: For it is not neceſſary that a Man ſhould be deſtitute of Books and Maſters, becauſe he is not Learned, &c.
Ax. 26. Now the Place from Cauſed has four Canons: And the firſt is, the Compoſed poſited, the Matter and Form muſt be ſo too: And when that's taken away, the Material Form alſo muſt be taken away.
1. §. And ſo Plants are living things; And therefore they muſt have a Body and Soul: And Stones are not; And therefore they muſt not have a Soul. I ſaid Form Material: For that the Compoſed taken away, the Matter ſhould be ſo too: Or the Form Immaterial, is not neceſſary: For it does not follow, that there is no Iron, becauſe no Sword: or that the Soul of Man is not, becauſe he dies, &c.
Ax. 27. Secondly, The Effect being poſited, it follows that either there is a Cauſe Efficient, or elſe, that there has been one.
1. §. As, there is a Building; and therefore there is, or was an Architect to build it. Here are the Footſteps; and therefore this Way, in all likelihood there has paſſed ſome Man, &c.
Ax. 28. Thirdly, Such as is the Effect, ſuch is the Cauſe that produc'd it.
1. §. As, this Picture is fine; and therefore ſo muſt the Artiſt be that drew it. To this are to be added, the ſame Limitations which were added to the firſt of the Place from Cauſe Efficient, viz the Cautions againſt Accidentals and Aequivocals, becauſe in theſe Caſes this Rule may fail us.
Ax. 29. Fourthly, The Means taken away, the End muſt alſo be ſo too.
1. §. As, Stones are not nouriſhed; and therefore they do not live. Many Men the Goſpel will not be Preached to; and therefore many Men by means of the Goſpel will not be ſaved, &c.
Ax. 30. The Place from the Subject has this Canon, viz. that the Subject being poſited, the Propriety muſt alſo be ſo too; and that taken away, the Propriety muſt alſo be ſo too.
1. §. As, Chriſt is God; and therefore he has the Power to forgive Sins. The Writings of the Fathers are not the Word of God; and therefore they are not of Divine Authority, &c. Now theſe Canons without any Limitation, are certain and firm.
Ax. 31. The Place for Adjuncts is of great Extent, and has under it Proprieties, Objects, Signs and Circumſtances. Now,
Ax. 32. The Place from Proprieties has two Canons; and firſt, that to which the Propriety is given, to that alſo the Subject; And that to which the Propriety is not given, to that neither the Subject, &c.
1. §. As, Chriſt is Omniſcient; and therefore he is God. Angels fill up no Place; and therefore they have not Bodies, &c.
Ax. 33. The Second is, that which is ſaid of the Propriety, may be alſo ſaid of the Subject: And that which cannot be ſaid of the Propriety, that neither of the Subject, &c.
1. §. As, a Talkative Perſon is to be avoided; and therefore a Buſie-Body, or one that is inquiſitive into other Peoples Matters. A wiſe Man is not to repoſe himſelf upon things of a Fleeting and Tranſitory Nature; and therefore not upon Riches or other Earthly Commodities, or Goods, &c.
Ax, 34. The Place from Object in the ſecond Place has this Canon, viz. That that to which the Object is given, to that alſo the Subject; and that to which the Object is not, to that neither the Subject, &c.
1. §. As, The Doctrine of fallacious Sophiſms directs the Mind towards the Knowledge of things; and therefore is a Part of Logick. Logick has not things neceſſary for its Object; and therefore is not Science, &c. The Arguments of this Place are very firm, if drawn from proper Objects; but otherwiſe only Probable: As, if one ſhould ſay thus; He talks of Military Affairs; and therefore he is a Soldier: Of Laws; and therefore he is a Lawyer. Her Delight is not in Womens Company; and therefore ſhe is not a Woman, &c.
Ax. 35. Place from Sign has this Canon, viz. Poſiting the Sign, viz. Antecedent, Conſequent, or Conjoyned, the thing ſigned is alſo poſited; and that taken away, the thing ſigned alſo is taken away.
1. §. As, it is Day; and therefore the Sun will riſe. The Woman longs; and therefore ſhe has conceiv'd. The Man flyes; and therefore he is guilty of the diſcovered Conſpiracy. It is not Full-Moon; and therefore there can be no Eclipſe, &c. Now Arguments drawn from this Place alſo are firm, when the Signs are neceſſary and proper to the thing ſigned; otherwiſe they are only probable: As, he was not Sempronius's Enemy; and therefore he kill'd him not. The Woman does not love the Boy; and therefore ſhe is not his Mother, &c. And therefore it is that the Philoſophers make uſe of theſe ſo much the more ſparingly.
Ax. 36. The Place from Circumſtance, laſtly, has this Canon, viz. poſiting the Circumſtance of the thing you poſit the thing it ſelf; and taking that away, you alſo take away the thing it ſelf.
1. §. As, he has ſtolen ſomething out of a ſacred Place; and therefore he is Sacrilegious. The Spring comes on; and therefore Flowers will be found. He goes covered with a Cowle or Hood, after the manner of the Monks; and therefore he is a Monk. Chriſt was to be born in the time of the Jewiſh Polity, and that at Bethlethem; which Polity is not now in being, as likewiſe Bethlehem: And therefore Chriſt is not now to be born (as believe the unconverted Jews) but is ſo alalready. He is not in Mourning; and therefore he mourns not, &c. Arguments alſo from this Place are Part firm, and Part probable; and Uſe will be the only means to diſtinguiſh betwixt them. And now we come to treat of the Canons belonging to Places Diſſentaneous, Compared and Teſtimonies.