Abstract of Logic, Book 2 · Chapter 18
CHAP. XVIII. Of Canons belonging to Places Diſſentaneous, Compared, and Teſtimonies.
Ax. 1. THE Place from Oppoſites in general has theſe two Canons: And firſt that of which one of the Oppoſites is affirmed, of that the other muſt be deny'd.
COMMENTARY.
1. §. As, It is a Houſe, and therefore cannot be a Man; he is ſick, and therefore cannot be ſound, &c. And here the Laws are to be obſerved which we have recited Book 1. Cap. 22. concerning Oppoſition.
Ax. 2. The Second is, The Predicates of Oppoſites are alſo oppoſed.
1. §. As. A juſt Man is he that keeps the Law; and therefore an Unjuſt that tranſgreſſes it. But here Care is to be taken, leſt their Difference or Affection Generical be predicated: For it does not follow, in that a Man has an Animate Body, that a Beaſt has an Inanimate; nor that becauſe Whiteneſs is viſible, Blackneſs is inviſible; becauſe to be animated, is the Difference Generical of Man, and Viſible the Affection of Colour, not Whiteneſs, &c. But this, viz. that becauſe Whiteneſs ſcatters; therefore Blackneſs gathers the Sight, is a good Conſequence, and does follow, &c.
Ax. 3. The Place from Contraries has three Canons; Firſt, that which takes up one Contrary that takes up another; and that which takes not up one that neither another.
1. §. As, Love is in the Concupiſcent Appetite; and therefore Hatred. Right belongs not to Beaſts; and therefore they cannot ſuffer Injury, &c.
Ax. 4. Secondly, The Cauſes, Effects and Adjuncts of Contraries are Contraries.
1. §. As, Virtue is from a good; and therefore Vice from an ill Habit. That makes one happy; and therefore this miſerable. That is to be wiſhed; and therefore this to be ſhunned, &c. But here two things are to be avoided. And Firſt, leſt we take the Cauſes or Effects by Accident, inſtead of thoſe per ſe: For it does not follow, a good Man loves and defends his; and therefore a wicked Man hates and deſerts his; Becauſe Love to one's own is not from Virtue, but Nature. Secondly, whoſe Effects are dependent on the Diſpoſition of the Matter. For by reaſon of Diſſimilitude of Matter, it often happens, that the ſame Cauſe produces contrary Effects; or contrary, like: For Heat hardens Clay and ſoftens Wax; and Threatnings not rarely produce that in ſome which in others. Entreaties; To wit, becauſe the Efficient acts not according to the Meaſure of its Virtue, but that of the ſubjected Matter.
Ax. 5. Thirdly, Of Contraries Immediate. Of Neceſſity one of them muſt be in the Capacious Subject, and the other not.
1. §. As, Libertus is not a Servant; and therefore he is free. The Number is not even; and therefore it is odd. The Canons here, obſerving the aforeſaid Limitations, are firm enough, and eſpecially the Third.
Ax. 6. Place from Relateds has but this Canon, viz. poſited one of the Relateds, there is alſo poſited the other: And that taken away, the other alſo is taken away.
1. § As, he to whom his Father is Maſter, the ſame is his Father's Servant. The Confederates of Rome are not their Subjects; and therefore the Romans are not their Maſters, &c. This Canon is moſt certain.
Ax. 7. The Place from Privatives has this Canon, viz. Of Privatives, The one muſt of Neceſſity be in the Capacious Subject, the other not.
1. §. As, he is blind; and therefore does not ſee. I, ſays our Saviour, am the Light of the World; and therefore whoſoever follows me, walketh not in Darkneſs. The Subject is ſaid to be capable, when ſo in reſpect to Nature, and the time ſet by Nature, &c. This Canon holds firm.
Ax. 8. Place from Contradictings has this one Canon, and that is, one of the Contradictings being placed, the other muſt be removed; and ſo on the contrary
1. §. This Canon is the very Foundation, upon which lean the Principles of all Sciences, and which, whoſoever denies, has no Reaſon, &c.
Ax. 9. That from the Major, has two Rules or Canons; and the firſt is, that to which the Major agrees to, that alſo the Minor.
1. §. As, God gave Life to Man; and therefore he will give Food: Bodies; and therefore Raiment, &c.
Ax. 10. The Second, That which convenes not to the Major, that neither to the Minor.
1. §. As, Angels are not pure before God; and therefore much leſs Man. A Man, taken by his Enemies cannot make his Will, much leſs a Traytor, &c.
Ax. 11. Place from the Minor has alſo two Canons; and firſt, that to which the leſs does not agree, to that neither the greater.
1. §. As, It is not lawful to be angry with ones Brother raſhly or without a Cauſe, much leſs to kill him.
Ax. 12. Secondly, That which to the Minor, that alſo to the Major.
1. §. As, An unchaſte Look upon a Woman is a Sin; and therefore Adultery. God gives Food and Raiment to the Beaſts; and therefore how much more to Men? &c.
Ax. 13. Place from Equal has three Canons; and firſt, to Equals equal things agree.
1. §. As, It was lawful for David to eat the Shew-Bread to allay his Hunger; and therefore for Chriſt's Diſciples to pull the Ears of Corn, and eat them on the Sabbath-Day to ſatisfie their Hunger.
Ax. 14. Secondly, that to which convenes one Equal, to that alſo convenes the other; and that to which one not, to that neither convenes the other.
1. §. As, Chriſt had the Power of miraculouſly healing the Paralytick; and therefore to forgive Sins. A magnanimous Man does not become a haſty Gate; and therefore not a Speech.
Ax. 15. The third Rule is, That which agrees to one of the Equals, that alſo to the other; and that which not to one, that alſo not to the other, &c.
1. §. As, Orpheus, Pollux, Theſeus and Hercules might go to the Infernal World; and therefore that Benefit ſeems not to be deny'd to Aeneas, who was not inferiour to them in Nobility of Stock; About which Aeneas diſputes in Virgil in this manner,
Si potuit Manes, &c.
Engliſh'd by Mr. Ogilby in this manner.
Could Orpheus make his Bride from Shades retire,
With pleaſant Notes from his enchanting Lyre?
If Pollux could by an alternate Death
His Brother eaſe, and tread ſo oft one Path;
Why ſhould I Theſeus or Alcides name,
And my Progenitors from great Jove came? &c.
Thus alſo we may argue, Tyrus did not ſuſtain the Force of Alexander; and therefore Jeruſalem had not done it, if Alexander had Beſieged that, &c.
2. §. All the Canons from the compared Places have great Probability and are almoſt certain if the Argument be well compared with the Parts of the Queſtion; that is, compared with the Subject or Predicate of the Queſtion, and not any thing elſe which is added in determining the Subject or Predicate: For if this ſhould be done, the Illation would be fooliſh. As if any one ſhould argue, Luſcus can ſee an Ox a great way off, and therefore a little Bird: And that from this Canon, that to which the greater agrees, to that alſo the leſs. The Cauſe of this Error conſiſts in the evil Compariſon: For although the Ox be greater thon the Bird, yet does it require a greater Perſpicacity to ſee a little Bird a great way off than an Ox.
Ax. 16. Places from like and unlike are of no great Uſe to prove or refel; but however we will recite their Canons: And ſo, proceed
1. §. To that of Teſtimonies: And the firſt is that to the like the like agree: And the Second, that the like to the unlike do not: As if one ſhould attempt to prove that all things ſhould be common amongſt Men; becauſe ſo amongſt Beaſts, one might anſwer, the Ratio of Men and Beaſts is not the ſame: And therefore that the ſame things ſhould agree to one as agrees to the other, is not neceſſary; becauſe that the like ſhould agree to the unlike is not neceſſary, &c.
Ax. 17. Now that from Teſtimonies has ten Canons; and firſt that of the Divine is moſt firm; and alſo, of its ſelf moſt worthy of Belief.
1. §. Under which Notion are contain'd, not only ſuch as proceed from God himſelf. As, that of this is my Beloved Son, &c. But alſo, ſuch as are written or ſaid by Men, who it appears were divinely inſpired; ſuch as were the Prophets and Holy Apoſtles, &c. But at this Day none are to be receiv'd for Divine, but only ſuch as are contained in the Canonical Books of the Holy Scritures.
Ax. 18. Secondly, The next in Degree to that of the Divine is the Teſtimony of our Senſes, as well the External as the Internal; to which appertains the Teſtimony of Conſcience.
1. §. The Force of Conſcience is great, ſays Cicero for Milo, and that not only in the Judgment; as, that thoſe ſhould not fear who have committed none Ill: Thoſe again have continually Puniſhment before their Eyes, that have ſinned; But in the whole Courſe of our Life, and in all things. For God has implanted in our Natures a certain Force of aſſenting to ſome moſt Univerſal and known Propoſitions of Truth, on which lean Arts and Sciences, as well Theoretical as Practical, to wit, ſuch as theſe, viz. that the Whole is greater than its Part. To God is due Religion; to Parents, Honour; to the Magiſtrate, Obedience, &c. Which he that believes not, ſeems to have ſhaken Hands with his Conſcience, and bidden adieu to the proper Force of his own Nature.
Secondly, Not leſs is the Force of the External Senſes, whoſe Judgment, whoſoever denies to be true, at the ſame time taking away the Sciences, and all Aſſent of the Mind, has brought an Infelicity upon himſelf, like that of the Scepticks and Academicks.
Ax. 19. No Humane Teſtimony, in the third Place, as Humane that is, as brought forth by Man, or proceeding meerly from Man, as Man's is of ſo much Authority, but that it may be queſtioned, both becauſe it is beyond the Humane Condition, not to err: And becauſe Men are ſo eaſily carried away by their Affections through the Force of which they embrace that as a Truth which in their ſedate Moods they know even to be falſe.
Ax. 20. Fourthly, That which leans upon the tacite Conſent of all Men is, before others the moſt likely.
1. §. As, That the Soul of Man is Immortal, and ſuch like, which lean upon no leſs than the Dictates of every Man's Natural Reaſon and Conſcience. In this Number yet are not to be reckon'd thoſe old Wives Sayings amongſt the Vulgar, viz. ſuch as theſe, That Swans ſing moſt ſweetly when they come to die. Bears bring forth miſ-ſhapen Cubbs, &c. For theſe no wiſe Man will give any heed to.
Ax. 21. Fifthly, In a Caſe where Men diſagree in their Teſtimonies, that which the Moſt and the Wiſeſt Aſſert, is the moſt likely to be true.
Ax. 22. Sixthly, A Skilful Artificer, if an Honeſt Man, is to be given way to in his own Art.
Ax. 23. Seventhly, If Words are in Diſpute, the moſt uſed are always the beſt.
Ax. 24. Eighthly, In Queſtions of right and wrong of much Moment, are Laws, Edicts, Acts of Parliament, Opinions of wiſe Men, Cuſtoms, Sentences in the like Caſe, &c.
Ax. 25. Ninthly, In thoſe of Fact … are of Uſe Witneſſes, Hand-Writings, Confeſſions, &c.
Ax. 26. Tenthly, A Negative Teſtimony, in moſt Caſes is not of any Avail at all.
1. §. For it does not follow, becauſe Ariſtotle or Plato has not ſaid it, that therefore the thing is not ſo: But if any Proof in Teſtimony, this follows, viz. That Ariſtotle, Plato, and other Profeſſors of Wiſdom have ſaid it; and therefore it is ſo: Or denyed it; and therefore it is not ſo, &c. For although a Teſtimony may not be Negative, yet nothing hinders but that a Negative Concluſion may be proved by a Teſtimony, &c. The Teſtimonies of Sacred Writ, alſo, Negative prove in things neceſſary to Salvation, whether to be done, or to be believed; although in the reſt they do not, to wit, becauſe all things Neceſſary to Salvation are in them contained.
And thus much of Canons Abſolute. Now come we to thoſe which are Compared, or concerning Compariſons, &c.