The Art of Logic, Book 3 · Part 10
First, Of the deprehension, or finding out of a Fallacie.
A Sophism or Fallacie is a deceit, either
In Form. a
In Matter. b
A Fallacie of Form, is when men sin against the dispositiona of a Syllogism, violating the Canons, either generall or speciall of all the Figures.
A Fallacy of matter, is either
In words. mb
In things. n
A Fallacy of words, is either in a word
Simple. gm
Compound. bg
A fallacy of a simple word is either
Of want of use. k
Of Ambiguity. l
A Fallacy of the want of use of a word, is either
1. For the darknesse of it.
2. For the oldnesse.k
3. For the Novelty.
4. For the impropriety of it.
These are opened in the first part of Logick.
Ambiguity of a word is either
For the many meanings.
For the doubtfull forming.l
Ambiguity for many meanings, is, when a term in a Syllogism is taken in this meaning or in that: as, That which is begotten beginneth to be: The Son of God is begotten, therfore beginneth to be.
Here is ambiguity in the word, begetting; for the generation that is in the Holy Trinity, differeth generally from the generation of the creatures.
Ambiguity for the forming of a word, is either in respect of the
1. Orthography.
2. Etymologie,
3. Prosodie.
1. In respect of the Orthography, is when the doubtfulnesse ariseth from the diverse pronouncing of word, or writing: as, If a man, pretending to make one his heir, should say, I will make thee mine hair; or to commend one for a full-hardy souldier, saith, He is fool-hardy.
2. In respect of the Etymologie, doubtfulnesse is which ariseth either of likenesse of ending, or confounding one number for another. This Fallacy is called, foreign.
3. In respect of Pro…odie, doubtfulnesse is which a…i…eth from wrong pronounciation; a long syllable for a short, or otherwise.
A Fallacy of a compound word, is, which is in a sentence and is called Amphib…lie▪ which is a double uncertainty of the meaning in a sentence.
And it ariseth either
1. Of the construction and distinction.
2. Of the phrase.
3. Of the Composition and Division.
1. Of the construction, when the coherence and construction of words is doubtfull.
2. Of the phrase, when not the construction, but the kinde of speech makes uncertainty of sense: as, Christ went up to Heaven to fill all things. Therefore, His body is diffused everywhere. It is a Fallacy, by not understanding the Apostles phrase, Fill all things, which is meant of the effusion of the Holy Ghost, not of the diffusion of his body.
3. Of Composition and Division, when words are joyned together which should be disjoyned, or contrariwise: as, Two, and three are even and odde; but five are two and three; therefore five are even and odde.
A Fallacy in things, is eithern
1. About the conclusion, or question. a
2. About the proof of the concluon, on o…ing the Mean. b
About the conclusion, is eithera
1. Asking of many questions, foreign.
2. Asking of another question, foreign.
3. Ignorance of the argument foreign.
1 The Fallacie of many questions, is, when many questions or conclusions are confounded in one: As, Were Moses, and Aaron, and David, good Kings? Here is confusion; for Aaron was not a King. So, when we ask, Have you left your stealing? If one answer, Yea, it intimateth he was once a thief; if he answereth, No, he argueth himself now to be a thief.
For every ambiguous question is not one, but manifold. As, Was Judas elected? Here tis doubtful, whether tis meant Election to life, or election to an Apostleship; therefore, it is no simple question.
Ubiquitaries reason thus; That which is Sacramentally united with the Bread, is eaten; though not after a natural, yet a supernatural manner. But Christs body is Sacramentally united with the Bread: Therefore, it is eaten, though not after a natural manner, &c. Answer is, In the conclusion, there is foreign.
For two questions are confounded,
1 Whether Christs body be eaten.
2 How it is eaten.
2 Ignorance of the Argument or Elench, is, when either the state of the question is quite turned and wrested, or the adversaries conclusion is not directly opposite to our Thesis, according to the Canons of lawful opposition: As, They that are conceived and born in sin, are not holy, The children of the faithful are conceived and born in sin: therefore, the children of the faithful are not holy. Here is ignorance of the Elench; for the conclusion is not directly opposed to our conclusion, who make the children of the faithful holy with the holinesse of the Covenant of calling and promise; But the Adversaries conclusion speaketh of holinesse which is immunity from sin.
About the proof of the conclusion, Fallacies are either
1 About the finding of the mean.b
2 About the premisses risen of the disposition of the mean.
1 About the finding of the mean is
Begging of the question. a
Assumption of a false mean, b
Begging of the question (or Petitio Principii) is whena no mean is taken, but the conclusion is proved by it self, repeated either by the same words, or by others Equivalent: As if one would prove pleasure to be the chiefest good, because delight is the chiefest good; or one would prove Jeconias to be the father of Salathiel, because Salathiel was son of Jeconias.
The Fallacie of a false mean, is when to prove a question,b there is taken a false mean having the appearance of a true: Whereupon, either the Major, or Minor is false.
A false mean is either
Of Contingency apparent.
Of Necessity apparent.
Of Contingency apparent, is that which seemeth to be drawn from some place of contingent invention: As Peter is named à Petra, the Rock of the Church: therefore, he is the Foundation and Head.
Answer. It is a Sophisticall Syllogism taken from the place of false Notation; And so of the places.
Of Necessity apparent, is, when a false mean is so propounded as taken from some necessary place, Monstrative, or Demonstrative: As from a false Genus, false Difference, Definition, &c.
As, Extream Unction is a Sacrament: therefore, it sealeth spirituall graces: It is from a false Genus.
Also, That which is united to the word, is every where; Christs humane nature is united to the word: therefore, it is everywhere; It is a Sophism, having for the Medium a false efficient cause.
2 Fallacies about the premises or disposition of the mean, are
Fallacie of the consequent.
Fallacie from a thing spoken after a sort.
Fallacie of the consequent, is, when there is a naughty connexion of the mean with the greater extream in the Major Proposition: as, He that said, Bread is my body, said, my body lieth hid in the Bread, but Christ said, &c, Ergo It is a Sophism of the consequence, whereof no good reason can be rendred: So Christ taught us to pray for our daily Bread: therefore, Lay-men must not drink of the Wine in the Lords Supper.
Fallacie from a thing spoken after a sort, to spoken simply, is when from the mean Term disposed with limitation, or after a sort with both or either of the extreams, a conclusion is inferred absolutely and simply true: as, He that is lesse then the father is not equall with him; Christ is lesse then the Father. Joh. 14. therefore, he is not equal with him. It is a Sophism from that which is limited, to that which is not limited. It should be thus, He that is lesse, simply and in all respects, is not equall: but then the Minor is false, For Christ is lesse, not in degree of Essence, or of substantiall perfection; But, First, By hiding the Godhead in the State of Humility. Secondly, By Office of Mediatour, whose parts he handleth with the Father. So he that saith, thy words are words, saith true; He that saith, thy words are lying☜ words, saith, thy words are words: therefore, He that saith thy words are lying words, saith true. Answer, He that saith thy words are words, viz. Absolutely, or Indeterminately, not adding false difference, saith true, and so the Minor is false. Under this is contained Fallacia Accidentis.