Treatise of Moral and Intellectual Virtues, Treatise on ethics · Part 3
Of LIBERALITY.
FOLLOWING Ariſtotles's Method, the next Virtue we are to Diſcourſe of, is Liberality, whoſe two Extreams are foreign, that is, Avarice; The Definition thereof is drawn from the Object about which it is converſant, that is Money: for Liberality is that decent meane, which we are to uſe in giving or receiving, in ſpending, or laying up of Riches: by which we underſtand not only That, which ordinarily bears the name of Money, but all whatſoever may be purchaſed or had for Money, in what kind ſoever, as Lands, Houſes, and Cloaths. In all theſe whoſo deſires more than is for neceſſity or for conveniency, offends againſt the Commands of this Virtue: The Humour or Paſſion, which this Virtue moderates, is Love of Money, Liberality moderates the love of Money.a ſtrange and unreaſonable Paſſion, as being fix'd upon a matter, which of its ſelf is of no uſe, ſave only that Men have agreed, that Money ſhall be the common meaſure of all things that are uſeful: And this Love of Money ſpoils all Liberality, as may be proved by ſeveral inſtances, which Theophraſtus hath ſet down in his Character of foreign; which is foreign; to which, He ſays, Liberality is directly oppoſite, and is defined to be foreign. a Virtue eaſie and ready to lay out its Money upon all good and Lawful occaſions; when the want of Liberality makes Men ſtingy, that they grudg to be at the neceſſary Expences of Life.
Parſimony commended·INDEED there is a ſort of Parſimony, which we call a Virtue, as it is in the people of Holland, who are ſo induſtrious, that they are able to furniſh infinite Luxury, which they never practice, and are ſo ſparing, that they Traffick all the Year in pleaſures, which they never taſte: Thus they are rich and happy in a voluntary Poverty, whilſt others are poor and wretched in their real Wealth; as all are, who have that foreign or littleneſs of Mind; which Theophraſtus obſerves to be foreign, and this ſordid Parſimony is admirably deſcribed by Juvenal in his Fourtenth Satyr,
Sunt quaedam vitiorum elementa; his protinus illos
Imbuit, & cogit minimas ediſcere ſordes.
The uſe of Money a very beneficial Invention.NOW, They who firſt ordained the uſe of Money, which ſome aſcribe to Abrahams's Father, were the Authors of a moſt uſeful Invention: For ſince Bartering, or change of Ware for Ware cannot be without much inconvenience, a fairer or more commodious way could not be provided to furniſh our ſelves with all neceſſaries not only for Life, but for good Deeds, than Money; which conſiſting of Gold and Silver, things hard to be come by, not without tedious, and perilous Voyages to Peru and Mexico, and being alſo of eaſie carriage, is moſt adapted for Tranſportation, and daily uſe in Merchandize. Notwithſtanding this, ſuch a ſtrange, unnatural paſſion hath poſſeſſed the minds of Men, that it hath taken off our Affection and Love for other things, and fix'd it upon Money, which is only the means to procure all other things:Avarice or the love of Money the moſt unnatural Paſſion. This Paſſion hath begotten the moſt deformed Monſter among the brood of Vices, which is Avarice; for the Creature, it once bewitches, as the Poet tells us, Aſtat prolato jejunus venditor auro. The Husbandman ready himſelf to ſtarve will ſell his Corn for Gold, and the Beggar, let him have but ſome ſmall piece of Coin, ſicco concoquit ore famem, will be content to ſhiver in his Rags, endure the biting of his Hunger rather, than lay out his Penny for a piece of Bread: A Humour this, as it is moſt unaccountable, ſo it is moſt dangerous. For whereas Vices are of two ſorts: ſome are intermittent, and take us as it were by Fits, as Gluttony, Luſt Drunkenneſs, Anger and the like;
THESE by affording us ſome lucid Intervals, There are two ſorts of Vices.give us leave to bethink our ſelves of what we have done, and by this means produce Repentance: But there are others without any intermiſſion, and keep us as it were in a continual Fit; ſuch are Ambition, Malice, and that which we now ſpeak of, Love of Money, or Covetouſneſs; theſe never allow us time to reflect, but continually preſs upon us, and leave no room for a ſober or a relenting Thought: For it hath been ſcarce ever heard of, that any malicious, ambitious, or covetous Perſon did ever return by repentance, but died in his ſin. That which by abuſe we commonly call Love, and which hath been the cauſe of much miſchief, hath found at length ſomewhat to qualifie its too great warmth, either Time or Buſineſs: But nothing can ſtop the violent workings of this Humour; Buſineſs encreaſeth it, as being that, which is chiefly occaſion'd by this Amor ſceleratus habendi: Old Age doth not diminiſh it; For we ſee, that it is almoſt the property of old Men, to doat upon their Wealth, as knowing how eaſie 'tis to loſe, and hard to get: And it hath been obſerved, that many Perſons have been hardly brought to make their Wills, becauſe they could not well brook theſe words, I give; which words are in a manner the very Eſſence and Form of Liberality.
WE have therefore great reaſon to be eſpecially watchful over our Minds,A covetous Temper is to be avoided above all things. that they do not ſink into a niggardly or covetous temper; not that He is of that temper, who ſpends leſs, than He hath coming in, nor He who can thrive by Prices, upon which the lazy and expenſive cannot live; But He is to be condemned for it, who breaks out into Fraud, Rapine, and Oppreſſion for the ſake of multiplying his Heaps; who with conſtant aſſiduity and application of mind purſues the queſt of Riches, and never thinks of being liberal to any one; yet a little to comfort and encourage the covetous Perſon, we are to underſtand, that the virtue of Liberality is as well ſeen in receiving as in giving; according as it is deſigned to be a Virtue moderating our Receipts, as well as our Gifts; And He, who is not careful of his layings up, as well as of his Expences, ſhall quickly find, that his Liberality will have an end.
MANY Reaſons are brought by Ariſtotle to prove, what needs not, that Liberality is ſeen more in giving, than in receiving: But we muſt know, that the Receiving, which ſo much commends the Liberal Perſon, conſiſts not in the receiving of Benefits from thoſe, that can give them; For this is indeed but a kind of Baſeneſs, but in the honeſt improving of our Stock, of our Thrift and all our opportunities of lawful Gain, of our Revenues, good Husbandry, and Merchandize. For this is the moſt proper foundation of all Liberality to make the beſt uſe of all juſt means of gaining, that ſo we may have ability of expending upon convenient and neceſſary occaſions, either of rewarding ſuch Perſons, as deſerve well, or of relieving the Neceſſitous.
THERE is a Virtue, which we call Frugality, whoſe peculiar praiſe conſiſteth, in ſaving Charges,How Liberality and Frugality are one. and in laying up: The truth is, Liberality and Frugality are but one Virtue; for without frugality Liberality is but profuſeneſs, and without Liberality frugality is but Avarice; onelyonly this difference there is, that Liberality is ſeen in giving, Frugality in ſaving, and both theſe do concur to make up the Virtue, we now ſpeak of: By the way we muſt obſerve, that Frugality ſometimes ſignifies all Virtues: according to which acceptation we ſpeak, when we ſay, Hominem frugi omnia rectè facere: and eſſe frugi, was in Tully's opinion a Virtue becoming a King.
HITHERTO we have ſpoken of thoſe parts, which conſtitute the very Eſſence of Liberality; it now remains, that we conſider ſome material Circumſtances, which are principally to be obſerved in Giving.
Firſt, THE End, why we give,The end of Giving. and This ſhould be nothing elſe, but foreign, pulchrum & honeſtum; whatſoever is juſt, honeſt, and Creditable: Whence we may infer that thoſe Men are not to be accounted Liberal, who give for Oſtentation, or to gain Fame and Glory; nor thoſe who bribe Judges and Advocates, that Juſtice may be perverted, nor thoſe, who aim at High Honours and Places of greateſt Power, as Tiberius Gracchus and Julius Caeſar did, who abuſed theſe great Virtues dandi, ſublevandi, ignoſcendi, as the Hiſtorian relates, that He might by any means ſecure to himſelf the Supreme Dominion; nor thoſe who raiſe a Profit from their Benefits, and put them out as it were to Uſe and turn their Liberality into a kind of Traffick; nor thoſe, who give to be rid of the importunity of Suitors, who by their boldneſs endeavour to extort Alms from timorous and eaſie-natur'd Men;Who are liberal Perſons. But thoſe only merit the Character of Liberal Perſons, who are ready to reward the Virtuous, and relieve the Neceſſitous; Seeing we are to temper our Beneficence by ſundry Circumſtances, in the firſt place as to Perſons, we may thus make our Liberality a part of Juſtice, by giving every Man, what is fit, an what is due: And here come in all virtuous Perſons; all induſtrious, indigent, and poor Labourers; all our decayed Kinsfolk, and all our well deſerving Friends; In ſhort, all that need us of what deſert ſoever they be: we are to reject the craving and unſatisfied, who are angry, if a drop of Charity fall beſides their private Fleece; the diſſolute and riotous, who are ſober perhaps and frugal, till they have earned a Sum to debauch withal; the Wanderours and Spyes, who dare not lead their unwarrantable lives in any fixed abode; the Irreligious and Profane, who never uſe the Name of Chriſt, but when they ask an Alms with it: Tho all theſe are to be paſſed by, and are not to be taken notice of by the Liberal Man; yet He is not with-held from doing good to all others within the verge of his Power; therefore his Bounty is not ſtinted to his own Family or Friends, to thoſe of his own Sect or Humour; but He is liberal to thoſe who have done evil to him, and may be preſumed ready to do more.
Secondly, WE are to conſider the time,The time in which we are to give. we are to give in, that we prolong not our Gift, nor torment the Receiver with expectation; For this cauſe our Liberality towards others muſt have reſpect to the Seaſons of great Sickneſs and greet Loſſes, to the ſcarceneſs both of Work and of Proviſions: Therefore when a ſober Young Man is ſinking at the beginning of his Trade, we muſt lay hold of that opportunity to help him: If another be under an Arreſt, we are by this Virtue engaged to deliver him in time; For ſo we may ſave him from perpetual Chains.
Thirdly, THE Circumſtance of place muſt not be neglected; For ſometimes we beſtow Benefits in Honour of thoſe, to whom we give them, and theſe muſt be done publickly; Sometimes they are given for the relief of Neceſſities, and theſe muſt be diſperſed with all poſſible privacy: For many modeſt Men would willingly receive, but are aſhamed to ask: Therefore the Man who is diſcreetly liberal, is very ſparing toward thoſe, who perpetually haunt the publick Streets and Avenues to Churches: but He looks for the needy actually in their miſeries, or in their labour; there He conceiveth, He hath a fit place offered for the depoſiting his Alms.
We muſt not be too profuſe, nor too ſparing.Fourthly, WE are to conſider, how much we are to give, that we be not too profuſe, that we be not too ſparing: This we may call due Meaſure and proportion, whereby our Liberal Deeds are fitted to the needs of the Receiver, and to the abilities of the Giver.
TOUCHING the needs of the Receiver, Liberality doth not always limit it ſelf to mere Neceſſity; but in Perſons, whoſe Fortunes are by loſs and accident declining, it hath reſpect to Decency, conſidering how great the fall is from Riches to Poverty; And in Men, who cannot ſupport life, but with the continual ſweat of their Brows, it pitieth the heavineſs of their Yoke and contributes ſomewhat towards the eaſe of Humane Nature.
TOUCHING the ability of the Giver; This Duty doth not require of all Men the ſame proportion, ſome may afford a twentieth, and others a thirtieth part: For before we go about any Charitable Work, we ſhould conſider the quantity of what we poſſeſs; how much is required for the ſupporting us in the condition of our Birth, our Place, our Office, our Family, and for the diſcharge of our Obligations; for whoſe Fortunes are intangled, an hundredth part for Liberality may be over meaſure. But S. Auguſtine ſays Regnum coelorum tantùm valet, quantùm habueris; every man's Faculties is the price of the Kingdom of Heaven; the ſame we may ſay, in all caſes, of this Virtue of Liberality; it is valued at the price of what we have, not at what we have not; ſo that out of much, we are to give much; out of little to give proportionably; for no man is too poor to be liberal. Nay he, who gives out of a little, in the Opinion both of God and good Men, is far more acceptable than he who gives much out of a greater ſtore: we read, when a great and wealthy Gentleman had preſented himſelf to the Oracle with a pompous and coſtly Sacrifice; he would needs know how grateful this was to God; and he received no other Anſwer but this, foreign. How was I pleaſed with that poor Handful of the moſt excellent Hermioneus!
Now this was a poor man who approaching the Oracle to Worſhip, offered nothing elſe but a ſmall piece of Leaven and Salt. Thus the Devil, where he did bear the Perſon of a God, knew very well how to act his Part; for in the Judgment of our Saviour, who beſt underſtood how to value things, the poor Widows Mite amounted to more than all the Offerings of the wealthy.
The Quality of the Gift muſt be conſidered.Fifthly, WE muſt conſider the quality of the Benefit we beſtow; how well it befits the Receiver: For this Reaſon we are to give Cloaths to the naked, Food to the Hungry, Books to the uninſtructed, and Phyſick to the ſick: The ſame good Principle will find out Workhouſes for the poor, which is a double Charity; for at the ſame time diligence is encouraged, and a ſupply is adminiſtred. Wherefore it is a great part of Prudence to afford ſuitable Supplies to the neceſſities of Mankind, and not to cry out, the Lord help them only, when Bread is wanting.
IT was a King, who being asked a Penny by a Beggar, anſwered him that a Penny was too little for a King to give; and the poor Petitioner then asking him a Talent, the King replyed, that a Talent was too much for a Beggar to ask: Thus he baſely eſcaped the beſtowing a Gift. Yet thus much by this we learn, that our Benefits muſt befit the Receiver: For if a Madman ask a Sword, we muſt deny him; and if a Perſon in want ask Relief, we muſt give it, becauſe our Gifts muſt be always beneficial to ſuch, as receive them.
Laſtly, WE mmſt take great care, with what mind we give, and above all we muſt be ſure, that we do it with a chearful Heart: For to give with difficulty and backwardneſs, is as it were to put Gravel into the Bread we diſtribute, and howſoever neceſſity forces the poor man to ſwallow it, yet it loſes all pleaſure in the Eating.
ABOVE all things it principally concerns liberal men, to conſider warily from whom they do receive, and whence or from what means they give; For it is a like Theft to receive unlawfully, as unlawfully to give; which is very aptly expreſſed in that Proverbial Saying, were there no Receivers there would be no Thieves. In the Civil Wars of Rome, managed by Sylla and Marius, according to the manner of Thieviſh War, the Conqueror by Proclamation gave away the Houſes and Poſſeſſions of ſuch as were vanquiſhed: But (which was very remarkable) there was not one to be found, who would make an advantage of theſe Gifts, but all with one conſent tanquàm à ſacris abſtained and held their Hands, neither would they receive or touch any thing, that belonged to others, duplicate page duplicate page duplicate page duplicate page as if they had been things conſecrated to the ſervice of the Gods.
WHERE ſhall ſome Chiſtians appear when theſe Actions of the Common People of Rome ſhall come to be examined; when without Scruple they take all things to be good purchaſe, which either their Malice or their Avarice tempt them to receive: This one Example ſhall put to ſhame and confuſion all thoſe, who have taken occaſion by War or Oppreſſion, by purloining and ſeizing upon the Poſſeſſions of the adverſe Party, to relieve their Beggary and baſe condition; the very Donations of Sylla and Caeſar are cenſured by thoſe that report them for rapacious and unjuſt, tho made under pretence of War; and doubtleſs, what is not lawful to give, is not lawful to be received.
Many other Circumſtances are to be obſerved in Giving; As,
Firſt, IN Giving we muſt be careful not to give of the meaneſt, or refuſe of what we have, but of the better Sort, and ſuch as may be uſeful: For he that gives of the worſt, and reſerves the beſt, hath more regard of himſelf, than of him to whom he gives; whereas a man truly liberal regards not himſelf ſo much as he doth him to whom he is beneficial. For the manner of God's Bounty to us ſhould ſhew us the way, how we ſhould be bountiful to others; for God daily loads us with his Benefits; He perpetually crowns us with Lovingkindneſs and tender Mercies: Now the return we are to make for all theſe Favours, for our Health, for our Reaſon, for all the Accommodations of our Bodies, is only to help our poor Neighbour with a little Gold or Silver.
Secondly, NOT the Greatneſs of the Benefit, but the Ability of the Glver is that which commends the Gift; as in the Caſe of the Rich Man's Offering and the Poor Widow's in the Goſpel; the former gave out of his abundance, which was not in the leaſt diminiſhed by it; the latter gave all, and that with a willing Mind, which did enhance the value of her Gift much above that of the Rich Man.
Thirdly, 'TIS obſervable that ſuch Perſons, who eaſily, as by Gift or by Inheritance attain to what they have, ſeem to be more liberal, than ſuch, who by their Labor and Induſtry have compaſſed their Wealth: For the firſt of theſe never tryed what Poverty was, never knew the price of a Penny; and hence it comes to paſs, that they ſo eaſily part with it; whereas thoſe, who hardly gain with great and continual Labour, what they have, are commonly more tenacious, becauſe things gotten with the Sweat of the Brow are held moſt pretious, and conſequently are not ſo readily given away: This makes the Trader frugal in ordering his Mony and Expences; this makes him ſo cautious in Buying and Selling, whereby his Mind is inur'd to a great piece of Wiſdom, to eſteem and compare one thing with another, to judg and value not only things neceſſary for the preſent, but all others alſo; for the Grounds and Principles of Judgment and Diſcretion are the ſame, though the Subjects, whereupon they are exerciſed are diverſe: This doth alſo make him orderly and temperate in his Dyet, careful of his Health and Life; while the Gentleman is thought leſs cautious and prodigal of all theſe; he eats greedily and ſpends his Mony laviſhly, he ſuffers himſelf to be overreach'd and thinks he is generous, when he is fool'd by the meaneſt and unworthieſt of the People, impudent Pedlars, or flattering Hoſts. But it is quite otherwiſe, where Men have and make uſe of the parts God hath given them; they are liberal, but it is with Diſcretion, and they are frugal, but without the leaſt ſuſpicion of Avarice.
WHEREFORE now we ſhould conſider a little the Nature of theſe two Vices, that are oppoſite to Liberality, Prodigality and Covetouſneſs. The Nature of which Vices is ſufficiently diſcovered, by that, which we have ſaid of the Virtue, Liberality, only this remark ſhould be made, that the Object of Liberality being twofold, giving and receiving, the oppoſite Vices have parted theſe two betwixt them; the one being converſant in immoderate Giving, the other in immoderate ſaving or taking: If we compare theſe Vices ſo as to diſcover which is the worſt,Avarice is more unprofitable, and worſe than Prodigality. and of the blackeſt dye, we muſt conclude, that Avarice doth far go beyond Prodigality in unprofitableneſs and miſchief: For all the time the covetous man lives, he is but like a Heap of Dung, which doth no good at all whilſt it lies together; by Death indeed his Wealth is ſpread abroad into many hands, and ſo it falls out to relieve the neceſſities, and to ſupply thoſe, who, out of a vertuous Intention, are well diſpoſed to do good to others: This may be the Reaſon why the Prodigalare pityed and bemoaned but the Covetous are never thought on without Deteſtation and Hatred: For other vitious Inclinations combat Reaſon, and often baffle it, but ſeldom can ſo far vanquiſh it, as that a Man doth applaud himſelf in his Miſcarriages; but the covetous Humour ſeizeth on our Reaſon it ſelf, and ſeateth it ſelf therein, inducing it to countenance and abett, what is done amiſs: The voluptuous Man is ſwayed by the violence of his Appetite; but the Covetous are ſeduced by the dictates of their Judgments; therefore they hoard all, and will not be perſwaded to part with any thing, becauſe they eſteem Riches the beſt thing in the World, and then they judg themſelves moſt wiſe, when they are moſt baſe.
Theſe are eſpecially of two kinds.
THE Firſt are thoſe who fail only in giving, for whom no man is indeed the worſe; yet withal, ſuch they are as for whom no man is the better; they are in appearance exactly juſt and punctual in their Dealing, and will preciſely give every man his own; but withal they will require their own again with the utmoſt Rigour, without abating the leaſt point: Theſe men, as the World goes, paſs amongſt many for juſt, upright and honeſt perſons; yet to expreſs the badneſs of their Crime, we call them by ſundry evil Names, ſometimes foreign, Parſimonious, or foreign Tenacious, to whoſe Fingers their Money is as it were glued and nailed, ſometimes they are called foreign, Sordid, who for a ſmall gain will undergo any baſe Office; or they are foreign, Cumini Sectores, who, that they may ſeem to do no injuſtice, will divide a Hair or the ſmalleſt things with you.
BUT if we would pleaſe God and act vertuouſly, we muſt demean our ſelves as Job did, Job 29.11, &c. deliver the poor that cry, and not grind his face; help the fatherleſs and the Widow, not exact the utmoſt farthing, they owe; Thus the good Publican recommended himſelf to our Saviour; Luke 19.8, 9. Behold, Lord, Half of my goods I give to the poor; Hence He was proclaimed a Son of Abraham, and Salvation came to his Houſe. So near to the Heart of Piety doth the Holy Scripture lay the practice of Liberality and Bounty; For no Men can be ſaid to be pious, unleſs they be well reported of for good Works; unleſs they have brought up Children, and lodged Strangers; unleſs they have relieved the afflicted and have diligently followed every good Deed.
Secondly, THERE is a ſecond ſort of Covetous Men, who offend not only in not giving, Ʋſurers and Gameſters cenſur'd.but in exceſſive taking, be it right or wrong; They will take that, which belongs to other men without any reſpect to common Juſtice; Such as theſe are Ʋſurers, and all that make gain of ſordid and illiberal Arts, keepers of the Stews, and Gaming-Houſes: Such as enrich themſelves, and care not how they impoveriſh others, like that Lord, who would make his Hedg go ſtrait; Such as undo whole Towns, and rob Churches; for whom the Name of Covetous Perſons is too gentle and mean, we ought rather to call them impious, unjust, and wicked; for whom no ill Character is bad enough: Of all theſe great and Enormous Vices Avarice is the ground, and therefore not without cauſe did the Apoſtle call it the Root of all Evil. From whence Oppreſſion, Rapine, Injuſtice and all the moſt virious humours do ariſe, that are the Diſeaſes, and predominant miſchiefs of the Mind; And the practices of covetous Perſons to ſober and good Men can ſeem no better, than that of the Devil, who goes about ſeeking, whom he may deceive and devour.