Treatise of Moral and Intellectual Virtues, Treatise on ethics · Part 13 – Part 14
Of Intellectual VIRTUES.
FROM Virtues of a more troubleſom and tumultuous nature; for ſuch all Moral Virtues are, which conſiſt in the Moderation of our Paſſions, that are nothing elſe, but Winds and Floods troubling our Quiet; We come now to a more ſerene and peaceable Order of Virtues, which we call Intellectual, and conſiſt in that part of the Soul, which hath Reaſon and Underſtanding: Theſe are in number Five, Ars, Prudentia, Scientia, Intellectus, Sapientia: For all things, about which we buſie our ſelves, are ranged under theſe three Heads, Profit, Peace, and Truth; Profit,Profit the Subject of Art. which is the God of the World, is the proper Subject of that Virtue, we call Art, and is nothing elſe, but diligence in geting a livelihood and means to ſubſiſt.
THE Virtue, which is employed in managing our Peace, we call Prudence; Peace the Subject of Prudence.for all endeavour for quiet and good order, and decent procuring and bringing about our induſtry for liveliehood, for mutual aſſociation, and all other helps of good order and fair demeanour amongſt our ſelves, either in ſingle Life or in Families, or in Commonwealths, which are nothing elſe, but Collections of Families, yea of managing War it ſelf, ſince War is never undertaken but for Peace; all theſe are the offspring and Iſſue of Prudence.
THE laſt thing,Truth the Subject of Science, &c. which we labor about, and indeed is moſt proper and agreeable to the rational Soul, is Truth, the moſt excellent of all other things, if we know how truly to value it: To this belong the other Three Virtues, Science, Underſtanding and Wiſdom, all which ſpend themſelves in the inveſtigation of Truth.
BY the way, I have often wondered, how Juſtice eſcaped out of the number of Intellectual Virtues; for it hath very little in it, why we ſhould account it among the Morals; ſince it is not converſant in the moderation of any Paſſion, or in holding a Mediocrity betwixt two extremes, which two things formally conſtitute every Moral Virtue; but every Act of it is purely Rational, and partakes little with the ſenſitive Part: But thus it hath pleaſed our great Maſters in this Faculty, we now ſpeak of, to range the Virtues; and having Diſcourſed of Juſtice among the Morals, we will take no farther notice of it, but deſcend forthwith to the explication of the Intellectuals; and Firſt,
Of ART.
NOW we enter the Work-houſe of Virtue, where Art manages all the Tools and Materials; and in Humane Life, we are much more beholden to thoſe, who invented Plowing and Sowing, than we are to the finer Wits,The work-houſe of Virtue. who have conveyed to us nothing but the abſtracted Ideas of Science, and the aiery Notions of Metaphyſicks; which are like the curious Argumentations, concerning quantity and motion in natural Philoſophy; if they only hover aloof and are not ſquared to particular Matters, they may give an empty ſatisfaction, but no benefit, and rather ſerve to ſwell, than fill the Mind: But whatever we ſee in Cities or Houſes, above the firſt Wildneſs of Fields, the Meanneſs of Cottages, and the Nakedneſs of Men, muſt be aſcribed to the Works of Art: Therefore we are now to ſhew, how excellent and uſeful Virtue is, in the Eſtabliſhed ways of Life: For altho the Studyes of Men are various, according to the difference of thoſe Callings, to which they apply themſelves, or the tempers of the places, wherein they Live; yet the whole Trade and Buſineſs among them,The Buſineſs of Life depends upon common Honeſty. doth depend as much upon Common-honeſty, as War doth upon Diſcipline; and without which, all would break up, Merchants would turn Pedlars, and Soldiers Thieves. But upon the Principles of Honeſty, we work chearfully, our Life is pleaſant, and we are conſtant to our Purpoſes, when the following of Profit, without regard to theſe Principles, will bring continual vexation upon us. Wherefore Tully in his Offices, blames the corruption of Time and Cuſtom, that the Word Profitable, ſhould be perverted inſenſibly to the ſignification of ſomewhat, that may be ſeparated from Honeſty; as if any thing could be profitable, that were not honeſt, or any thing honeſt without being profitable; an errour of the moſt pernicious conſequence imaginable to the Life of Man: From the not underſtanding this matter aright, it often comes to paſs, that we have a cunning Artificial ſort of People, in great admiration, miſtaking Craft for Wiſdom: This opinion is by all means to be rooted out from among Men, and this following perſwaſion, erected in the ſtead of that; there is no compaſſing the end we aim at, by fraudulent and indirect courſes, but only by juſt Dealings and honeſt Counſels.
SO that if that be true, which is commonly obſerved, that Men are wont to prove ſuch kinds of Chriſtians, as they were Men before, and that Converſion does not deſtroy, but exalt our Tempers; it may well be concluded, that the diligent Man in his Employment, is nearer to make a modeſt, and an humble Chriſtian,The diligent Man makes the beſt Chriſtian. than the Man of Speculative Science, who is proud of his Knowledg; for a true Preparation for the next Life, is not at all inconſiſtent with Men's conſulting of their happineſs in this World, or being employed about Earthly Affairs; the honeſt purſuit of the neceſſaries, and of the conveniences of a mortal Condition, by Juſt and regular Ways, is by no means contradictory to the moſt real and ſevere Duties of a Chriſtian; it is true indeed, an irregular proſecution of Profit or Gain, is an offence to Religion; but ſo it is alſo to Right Reaſon, and Nature it ſelf: And it is a wrong Conception of the State of Grace, if Men believe, that when they enter upon it, they muſt preſently caſt away all the thoughts and deſires after the Poſſeſſions of this World; but when we are bidden not to think our own thoughts, it is not intended, that we ſhould forbear all natural Actions and Inclinations; ſo it muſt be lawful for the ſtricteſt Chriſtian, by the help of honeſt Arts, to provide for the neceſſities of this Life; elſe the condition of Men would be worſe, than that of the Beaſts, that periſh; ſeeing to them it is natural to ſeek out for all the ways of their own preſervation.
IT muſt be confeſſed, that there may be an exceſs, as well as defect, in men's Opinions of Holineſs; and then I will make no Scruple to ſay, that the virtuous Man defiles not his Mind, when he labors in the works of an honeſt Art to advance his profit;Chriſtianity approves of the works of honeſt Art. the diverſion it gives him, will ſtand with the greateſt conſtancy, and the delight of purſuing it, with the truth and reality of Religion: Which is indeed an Heavenly Thing, but not utterly averſe from making uſe of the Rules of humane Arts; wherefore it is not the beſt ſervice, that can be done to Chriſtianity, to place its chief Precepts ſo much out of the way, as to make them unfit for Men of buſineſs, whereas the beſt part of Religion is Practical, and Her chiefeſt Precepts are thoſe, that govern the private Motions and Paſſions of our Minds; thoſe are its moſt excellent Rules, which calm our Affections and Conquer our Vices; And the works of practical Religion are no leſs wonderful, than thoſe of Art, which we now ſpeak of; for in whatever place of the World Arts have been deſtroyed,Barbarity prevails when Arts are Deſtroyed. Barbarity hath prevailed; inſomuch that if Ariſtotle, and Plato, and Demoſthenes, ſhould now ariſe in Greece again, they would ſtand amazed at the horrible Devaſtation of that, which was the Mother of Arts, and at the ignorance as well as incivility, that hath taken its ſeat: And if Caeſar and Tacitus ſhould return to Life, they would ſcarce believe this Britain, and Gaul, and Germany, to be the ſame, which they deſcribed; they would now behold 'em covered over with Cities and Palaces, which were in their time overrun with Forreſts and Thickets; They would ſee all manner of Arts Flouriſhing in theſe Countries, where the chief Art, that was Practiſed when they Lived, was that Barbarous one of Painting their Bodies, to make them look more Terrible in Battel.
HENCE it is remarkable, that whereever Arts have been Plante,d there Humanity, good Manners,Religion and good Manners Fouriſh, where Art is encouraged. and the Seeds of Religion have encreaſed; and ſo long as there remains any corner of the World without Civility, Artificers are the moſt likely and fitteſt Perſons, to ſubdue the Rudeneſſes of Mankind: And it was ſaid of Civil Government by Plato, that the World will be beſt ruled, when either Philoſophers ſhall be choſen Kings, or Kings ſhall have Philoſophical Minds; And I will affirm the like of Philoſophy; it will then attain to Perfection, when either the followers of Art ſhall have Philoſophical Heads, or the Philoſophers ſhall have Mechanical Hands; for thus the conceptions of Men of Knowledg, which are wont to ſoar too high, will be made to deſcend into the Material World; and the Flegmatick imaginations of Men of Trade, which uſe to grovel too much on the Ground, will be exalted: And the power as well as the value of Art may be proved by one inſtance, and it is of Archimedes, who did wonders by applying his ſkill in the Mathematicks to the Practices and Motions of manual Trades; his ſucceſs was ſo prodigious herein, that the true contrivances of his Hands did exceed all the fabulous ſtrength, which either the Antient Stories, or modern Romances have beſtowed on their Heroes: He alone ſuſtained the burden of his Falling Country; He alone kept the Romans at a bay, to whom the whole World was to yield: For neither Seas nor Mountains, neither Fleets nor Armies could reſiſt the Force of his Engines, which are the greateſt Powers of Nature, and of Men.
AS therefore thoſe Men are moſt happy,Where Arts abound, there are Riches. who are ſtill labouring to improve their minds in moral Virtues, which have ſuch a mutual dependence, that no man can attain to perfection in any one of them, without ſome degree of the other; ſo that Country is ſtill the richeſt and moſt powerful, which entertains moſt Manufactures; For the hands of men Employed are true Riches, and where this is done there will never a ſufficient matter for Profit be wanting; but where the Ways of Life are few, the Fountains of Profit will be poſſeſs'd by Few, and ſo all the reſt muſt live in Idleneſs, on which inevitably enſues Poverty.
FOR Idleneſs is that defect which is oppoſite to Art; for the Arts of men's hands are ſubject to the ſame infirmity with Empire, the beſt Art of their minds, of which it is truly obſerved, that whenever it comes to ſtand ſtill,Idleneſs the cauſe of very ill effects. and ceaſes to advance, it will ſoon go back and decreaſe: So if we ſhall caſt an Eye on all the Tempeſts, which ariſe within our Breaſts, and conſider the Cauſes and Remedies of all the violent Deſires, malicious Envies, intemperate Joys, and irregular Griefs, by which the lives of moſt men become miſerable or guilty, we ſhall find, that they are chiefly produced by Idleneſs, and may be moſt naturally cured by Buſineſs: For whatever Art ſhall be able to buſie the minds of men with a conſtant courſe of innocent works, or to fill them with as vigorous and pleaſant Images, as thoſe ill Impreſſions, by which they are deluded; it will certainly have a ſurer effect in the compoſing and purifying of their thoughts, than all the rigid Precepts of the Stoical or the empty diſtinctions of the Peripatetick Moraliſts.
NOW then it is required in that Study, which ſhall attempt according to the force of Nature,The Diſeaſes of the mind cured by buſineſs. to cure the Diſeaſes of the Mind; that it keep it from idleneſs by full and earneſt Employments, and that it poſſeſs it with innocent, various, laſting, and even ſenſible Delights: therefore where Induſtry and Trade do fill the Thoughts, as it does the whole Soul of the People in Holland; you ſhall find none of thoſe Diſtempers, that infect the minds of the Slothful and unactive; Strangers among them are apt to complain of the Spleen, but thoſe of the Country ſeldom or never; which I take to proceed from their being ever buſie, and eaſily ſatisfied; For this ſeems to be the Diſeaſe of People, that are idle, and is incident to all men at one time or other, from the Fumes of indigeſtion, from the common alterations of ſome inſenſible degrees in Health and Vigour; or from ſome changes, or approaches of change in Winds and Weather, which affect the finer Spirits of the Brain, before they grow ſenſible to other parts; and are apt to alter the ſhapes or colours of whatever is repreſented to us by our Imaginations, whilſt we are ſo affected; yet this effect is not ſo ſtrong, but that Buſineſs or intention of Thought, commonly either reſiſts or diverts it: but ſuch as are idle, or know not, from whence theſe Changes ariſe, and trouble their Heads with Notions and Schemes of general happineſs or unhappineſs in Life; upon every ſuch Fit they begin reflections on the condition of their Bodies, their Souls, or their Fortunes; And as all things are then repreſented in the worſt Colours, they fall into melancholy Apprehenſions of one or other, and ſometimes of them all; theſe make deep impreſſion on their minds, and are not eaſily worn out by the natural returns of good Humour: But this is a Diſeaſe too refined for a People, whoſe Heads are bent upon laborious Arts; they are well, when they are not ill, and pleaſed, when they are not troubled; they ſeek their happineſs in the common Eaſes and Commodities of Life; never amuſing themſelves with the more Speculative contrivances of Paſſion, or reſentments of Pleaſure.
WHICH brings me to the other Extreme, that is contrary to Art in the Exceſs: which is that Errour of mens Labours in all Ages, when they have ſtill directed them to improve the arts of Pleaſure, more than thoſe of Profit: Hence it is that Men are Extravagant in painting their Coaches;The miſchief of improving Arts of Pleaſure more than theſe of Profit. when their Heads would be better employed in inventing new Frames for Carts and Ploughs; they are at a prodigious Charge for the Faſhions of Cloaths, when they might ſpend their time better in deviſing new materials for Cloathing, or in perfecting thoſe we have; the Furniture and magnificence of Houſes is riſen to a vaſt Expence within our memory; But Men would improve their time much better, and exerciſe a far more uſeful Art, in ſtudying how to order Timber better, harden Stone, improve Mortar and make firmer Bricks: If men would be perſuaded to follow the beneficial Arts of Life, and not be guided by vain Fancies, we ſhould not be ſo overwhelmed, as we are, by Gaudineſs and Superfluity; ſo debauched by Pride and Luxury.
NOW then I will proceed to exhort the Man who hath moſt leiſure to proſecute earneſtly all the uſeful Arts of Life; and for his Encouragement in theſe Ways, I will briefly lay down before him the Advantages He will gain by them.
Firſt, THE uſual courſe of Life of the Gentleman eſpecially in England is ſo well placed, like Virtue between two Extremes, The Advantage Gentlemen have above others.between the troubleſom noiſe of pompous Magnificence, and the baſeneſs of Avaricious Sordidneſs; that the true happineſs of living according to the Rules and pleaſure of uncorrupt Nature, is more in their power, than any others: To them in this Way of Life there can nothing offer it ſelf, which may not be turned to a Philoſophical uſe; If they will conſider the Heavens, or the motions of the Stars, they have in the Country a quieter Hemiſphere, and a clearer Air for that purpoſe; if they will obſerve the generations of living Creatures, their Stables and their Ponds, their Parks and their Kennels will give 'em Eternal matter of Enquiry: If they would advance their Fruits or their Plants, then the Paſtures and Orchards, the Groves and Gardens furniſh them with perpetual Contemplations. And from their Sports, Hunting, Hawking, Fiſhing, Fowling, they may receive as much ſolid Profit, as they do Delight.
FOR if the Gentleman, who is ſo much at leiſure, can be brought to the love of ſome Art or buſineſs, Men moſt at leiſure may much advance the happineſs of mankind by loving ſome Art or buſineſs.the World would become more active and induſtrious; conſequently the happineſs of Mankind would be much promoted, for that the minds of all ſorts of men would be ſo taken up in ſome profitable Art or other, that they would not have time to think of thoſe things, that diſturb the peace of Human Societies: And let 'em not imagine, that Buſineſs doth debaſe them, or corrupt their Blood, becauſe where Arts do moſt flouriſh, there the greateſt Riches and power are eſtabliſhed; And if that be true, that every thing is preſerved and reſtored by the ſame means, which did beget it at firſt; they may then believe. that their preſent Honour cannot be maintained by intemperate Pleaſures, or the gaudy ſhews of Pomp, but by true Labours and induſtrious Virtue; and if we enquire into the Ways of Life of ſome of the Greateſt Men, that have lived in times paſt, we ſhall find, that amidſt the Government of Nations, the diſpatch of Armies, and noiſe of Victories, ſome of them diſdained not to work with a Spade, to dig the Earth, and to cultivate with triumphing Hands, the Vine, and the Olive.
THESE indeed were Times,Conquerours and other Great Men have laboured with their hands. of which it were well if we had more Footſteps, than in ancient Authors; then the minds of Men were innocent and ſtrong and bountiful, as the Earth, in which they laboured; then the Vices of Human Nature were not their Pride, but their Scorn; Then Virtue was it ſelf, neither adulterated by the falſe Idols of Goodneſs; nor puff'd up by the empty Forms of Greatneſs; as it has been in ſome Countries of Europe, which are arrived at that corruption of Manners, that perhaps ſome ſevere Moraliſts will think it had been more needful for me to perſuade the Men of this Age, to continue Men, than to turn Philoſophers.
HOWEVER there is nothing, whoſe promoting is ſo eaſie,Diligence hath done the moſt wonderful things. as Diligence, when it is once ſet on Foot; an Inſtance whereof …s the Hollanders; At firſt they were as Lazy, as ſome others; but when by the number of their People they were forced to look abroad, to Trade, to Fiſh, and labour in the Mechanicks; they ſoon found the ſweetneſs, as well as Toyl of their Diligence; their ſucceſſes and their Riches ſtill added new heat to their Minds; and thus they have continued improving, till they have not only diſgraced, but terrified their Neighbours, by their induſtry. The true Method of encreaſing of which is by that courſe, which ſome have begun in Philoſophy, by works and endeavours, and not by the preſcriptions of Words or Paper-Commands: For if our Labourers had been as diligent, as our managers of Law-Suits, we had proved not only the moſt laborious, but the beſt temper'd Nation upon Earth: when the moſt diſagreeing Parties may lay aſide their Names of Diſtinction, and calmly conſpire in a mutual agreement of Labours; a Bleſſing, which anſwers that Evangelical Promiſe, that the Lion and the Lamb ſhall lie down together; For in the Arts of Life men do not only converſe without Violence or Fear, but they work and think in Company, and confer their help to each others Advantage: For ſhould we look back to the beginning of the World, all would appear an America to us; an uncultivated Deſart, a wild Habitation; neither had Man any property, before his labour made him a Title:All property did ariſe from Labour. Wherefore the firſt Commoners of the Earth did employ their Heads about getting the neceſſary ſupports of Life, and there ended their deſires; the later Inventions of Gold, Silver and Diamonds being things, that Phancy or Agreement hath put a price upon more, than real Uſe: Nature unaſſiſted by Art did once furniſh all the neceſſities of mankind, but ſince they have multiplied ſo much, many Arts have been found out, not only to anſwer the daily Needs, but the many conveniences of Human Life: Hence it is, that we have now Bread, Wine, and Cloathing, in the room of Acorns, Water, and Skins: for whatever valuation the three firſt bear above the latter, is altogether owing to the Hand of Laborious Art; which how much they exceed the other in intrinſick worth, as ſoon as we have computed; we ſhall then ſee, how much the devices and operations of Art have made the far greateſt part of the value of Things, we enjoy in this World: For Nature doth only afford materials for Art to work upon: ſo that when we reckon into every Loaf of Bread, that is eaten, the pains and Skill of the many Artificers before Corn is wrought into Bread, we muſt admire the effects of Induſtry, and the Wiſdom of God in his Wiſe diſpoſal of this part of his Creation, who hath given it to the uſe of the induſtrious and Rational, not to the Phancy or covetouſneſs, of the ſenſual or the Contentious.
HENCE we may infer the neceſſity of a Calling in all Orders of Men for their better leading a profitable and virtuous Life; For Man is very active by Nature, and if He hath no Vocation to buſie himſelf in, he muſt needs be doing ſomewhat, that is Evil; as in the caſe of lazy Monks and begging Fryars, thoſe ſlow Bellies, who by their unlawful Vows and affected poverty renounce all honeſt Induſtry, and enrich themſelves not only with the Widows Houſes, but with the fatteſt Lordſhips of a Country; or in the caſe of thoſe, who think themſelves priviledged from taking pains by their Birth, Breeding, and Eſtates; by which means their whole Life is ſpent either in doing nothing, or that, which is worſe: Now theſe Perſons ſhould look into the Hiſtories of their Anceſtors, and obſerve by what ſteps they raiſed their Houſes to the height of Gentry, or Nobility; it was done either by ſerving in the Camp, ſweating at the Bar, waiting at the Court, adventuring on the Seas, or by bartering in the Shop; If it be ſo, then they uſurp their Arms, if they do not inherit their Virtues: And if Mankind would judg truly of their Condition, as to the account they muſt give to God of their ſeveral Talents, the conſideration of their works rather, than of their diſpoſitions, will afford 'em the beſt Aſſurance; becauſe their Gifts and Abilities both of Body and Mind, being in the brain or hand, are at a greater certainty, than their Inclinations, which are ſeated in the Heart, that is deceitful above all things.