The Court of the Gentiles Part 2, Book 3 · Chapter 1

The Court of the Gentiles Part 2 · Book 3 · Chapter 1

p. 211CHAP. I. Of Socratick Philoſophie, its Original, &c.

Socrates brought in Moral Philoſophie, and why: His Metaphyſicks from the Scriptures, viz. That Ʋirtue and Knowledge of God comes by Divine infuſion: His Daemon, &c. Socrates's Philoſophie how far Contemplative: All true Philoſophie Active: His Moralitie, particularly his endeavours to ſtrip men of vain conceits touching their own knowledge, & to reduce them to the Knowledge of themſelves. The Forme of Socrates's Philoſophie was partly Rhetorical by Ironie, partly Dialectical, by Introduction, and Interrogation, according to the Jewiſh mode of Diſputing, Mark. 8.11. Luk. 11.53. Socrates's Death, and Character: the many Sects, that ſprang from his Schole, and their differences about the chiefeſt Good, &c.

§. 1. HAving diſcourſed at large of the Italick Philoſophie founded by Pythagoras, and its …raduction from the Divine Oracles: We now return to the Ionick, and its Advances under Socrates, and by his Scholars, Plato, &c. We have afore in the Storie of Thales, ſhewn how he, who was the Founder of the Ionick Sect, traduced the Choiceſt parts of his Philoſophie from the Jewiſh Church. We are now to demonſtrate, what emprovment the Ionick Philosophie received from the ſaid Jewiſh Philoſophie, and Sacred Oracles. The Ionick Schole (as we before p. 212hinted) was Tranſplanted from Ionia in Aſia, Voſſius de Philoſ. Sect. part. 2. cap. 5. paragr. 7. Lud. Viv. Aug. Civ. l. 8. c. 2.unto Athens by Anaxagoras. as Voſſius will have it; or by his Succeſſor Archelaus, as Ludovicus Vives. Socrates was Scholar to both: Firſt to Anaxagoras, and after his departure from Athens to Archelaus, who was called the Phyſiologiſt, or Naturaliſt, becauſe he (as all his Predeceſſors of the Ionick Schole) wholly addicted himſelf to Natural Philoſophie.

Socrates the Author of Moral Philoſophie.§. 2. But Socrates, being diſguſted at the vain Ph…loſophizings of theſe proud daring Naturaliſts, conſiders how he might reduce Philoſophie to a more Practical uſage. For obſerving what ſmall advantage Contemplative Philoſophie brought to Human Life, he reduced her to a more Active Science; and ſo pared off in every Science what he conceived leſſe uſeful,,Galenus initio libri de Sectis Philoſ. S…crati inventionem Ethicae, et Logicae tribuit. Hornius Hiſt. Phil. l. 3. c. 13. valuing Speculation no farther, than it conduced to Action. Thus Cicero Acad. Quaeſt. 1. Socrates (ſaies he) ſeems to me, as it is manifeſt to all, to be the Firſt, that called off Philoſophie from occult things, and ſuch as were involved, in Nature, in which all the foregoing Philoſophers were Verſed, and to reduce her to common Life, that ſo men might enquire about Virtue, and Vice, and altogether of things Good, and Evil. As for Celeſtial bodies, he judged them altogether above the knowledge of Nature, or if they might be never ſo well known, yet did they no way conduce to our well living. Thus Cicero. We find the like account in Auguſt. Civit. Dei lib. 8. cap. 3. Of Socrates's Philoſophie. Socrates (ſaies he) therefore was the firſt, who is mentioned to have turned the whole of Philoſophie, for the correcting, and compoſing of manners: whereas before him all employed their chiefeſt endeavours in Phyſicks, i. e. in natural Enquiries. Thus we ſee, that Socrates was the firſt, who rejecting Aſtronomical, and Phyſick Contemplations, brought in Moral Philoſophie into the Scholes: whence he is ſaid to call down Philoſophie from Heaven to Earth.

Why Socrates applyed himſelf wh…lly to Moralitie.§. 3. Auguſt. alſo (de Civ. l. 8. c. 3.) enquires into the reaſons, which might enduce Socrates to reject the Speculative Diſquiſitions, which were then moſt in vogue, and to turne his Philoſophizing wholly to Moralitie. And he concludes that 'tis not clear, whether it proceeded from an irkſome ſenſe he had of the obſcuritie, and uncertaintie, which attended ſuch Natural Philoſophizings: or (as ſome more favourably judge) whether it were, that he judged men not fit to meddle with ſuch ſublime Myſteries, before they had gotten minds p. 213purified, and clarified from terrene affections, &c. So Lactant. lib. 3. I grant (ſaies he) that Socrates was a little more diſcreet than the reſt, who fancyed, they could comprehend the Nature of things by their Ingenie, wherein I conceive them to be not only fooliſh, but impious, in that they dare thurſt in their curious eyes into the ſecrets of that Celeſtial Providence: yea I count them much more wicked, who ſeek to prophane the ſecrets of the World, and this Heavenly Temple, by their impious diſputes, than he that would endeavour to enter into the Temple of Veſta, or Ceres, &c. Put the genuine account ſeems this; that Socrates having enquired into all kinds of Philoſophie then in vogue, he found little of certaintie, and leſſe of uſefulnes therein; whereupon he made it his deſigne to reduce ſpeculation to practice, &c. The like inducement drew Padre Paul that Venetian Reformer to quit ſpeculative Philoſophie, and turne to Moralitie, as it's well obſerved by the Author of his Life (Engliſh, pag. 69.) About that time (ſaies he) Father Paul changed the qualitie of his ſtudies (excepting Eccleſiaſtical, and Prophane Stories) to the ſtudie of Moral Philoſophie. Peradventure that which is written of Socrates is no ſingular, or voluntarie Act, but is, as it were natural to all thoſe underſtandings, which have any thing of tranſendent, who, after they have made a diſcoverie of what they can arrive to upon Univerſalities, tranſport themſelves totally to Moralitie; which ſtudie (as to inferior things) is the only ſpeculation of Humanitie. This ariſeth either from a deſire more intenſe to better it ſelf, or from ſome incomprehenſibilitie, or from a ſolid judgment of the vanitie of Sciences, &c.

§. 4. Though Socrates addicted himſelf chiefly to Moralitie, yet was he not without skill in other parts of Philoſophie, and Learning.Socrates a… Univerſal Scholar. Plato in his Epiſtles Attributes ſome parts of Natural Philoſophie to Socrates. Xenephon his Scholar (as alſo Cicero) affirms, that he was excellent in all kind of Learning, as well in Wiſdom, Acutenes,Socrates junior adhuc incredibili cupiditate naturalis Scientiae arſit, uti de ſe apud Platonem, lib. de anima teſtarur: Senior factus cam Philoſophiae partem, ut dubiam, incertam, inutilem, prorſus repudia…it. Hornius Hiſt. Phil. l. 3. c. 13. Politenes, and Subtiltie; as in …loquence, Varietie, and Copiouſnes: to whatſoever piece of Learning he addicted himſelf; he was without exception Prince of all. So much alſo is expreſſed in that anſwer, which the Oracle made to him, who enquired who was the wiſeſt m…n? foreign, Of all men Socrates is the wiſeſt, ſaid the Oracle. He made man the entire ſubject of his p. 214Philoſophie. For, according to the twofold foreign, or regard of man, 1. To Divine Contemplation, or, 2. To Human Converſation, he divided his Philoſophie into Metaphyſick or Contemplative, and Moral or Active.Socrates's Metaphyſicks. 1. As to his Metaphyſicks, or Divine Contemplations, he took it for granted, whileſt man was ſubject to, and under the impreſſion of corporeal Images, ſenſible Formes, and terrene Affections, he was not rightly diſpoſed for Divine Contemplation, which required a mind defecated, and ſeparated from corporeal Phantaſmes, and Paſſions. This ſome give as the reaſon, why in his Philoſophick Inſtitutes he ſo much addicted himſelf to moralitie; becauſe he found his Scholars not capable of thoſe more ſublime Metaphyſick Contemplations, therefore he endeavoured to prepare them for the ſame by Moral Inſtitutes. This he made the chief ſubject of his laſt Philoſophick Lecture to his Scholars, after he had taken his Poyſon, immediately before his Death, as we find it related at large by Plato in his Phaedo; where he gives us Socrates's Dying Philoſophizings touching the ſouls immortalitie, and ſeparate ſtate; and particularly, that none could rightly Philoſophize of theſe Divine Myſteries, but ſuch as had their ſouls ſtripped of, & abſtracted from all Corporeal images, impreſſes, and affections: for 'till the ſoul was looſe from the priſon of the bodie it could not be free for the Contemplation of God &c. Whence he defines Philoſophie a mediation of death i. e. of the ſeparation of the ſoul and bodie, in which ſtate the ſoul being purged from thoſe corporeal dregs, by which it was contaminated, whileſt confined to the bodie, it is rendred capable of contemplating God, and Divine things. For (ſaies he) it is great impietie to ſuppoſe that the Moſt Pure Divine Truth, and Being, will be touched by an impure mind. Thence he judged, that the Friends of God knew more of him, and his Divine Myſteries, than impure ſouls, who followed not God. And Plato in his Cratylus brings him in affirming, that only Good men were Wiſe, and skilful in Divine Myſteries, &c. So Auguſt. de civit. Dei l. 8. c. 3. giving a reaſon, why Socrates Philoſophized ſo much on Moralitie, he ſaies, Socrates would not, that minds clogged with terrene paſſions, ſhould extend themſelves to contemplate Divine things, which he conceived could not be comprehended but by a refined judgment: and therefore he thought men ſhould be very intent on getting a reformed Life, that the minde being exonerated of its depreſſing Luſts, might by a natural p. 215vigor, lift up it ſelf to Eternals, and by that puritie of Intelligence contemplate the Nature of that Eternal, Incommutable Light, where the cauſes of all created Natures live in ſtabilitie, &c. Thus August. Whereby we are informed, why Socrates was ſo ſparing in communicating his Divine Contemplations to his Scholars: though it ſeems to me very evident by what I find aſcribed to him by Plato, that of all the Grecian Philoſophers (Pythagoras not excepted) Scocrates had as (if not more) clear Notions as any touching God, his Nature, Vnitie, Socrates hi… Metaphyſick Contemplations from Scripture traditions.and other ſacred Myſteries, which he could never have attained unto, but by ſome borrowed Tradition originally Jewiſh, or Scriptural. Particularly Socrates aſſerted. 1. The Spiritual, Infinite, Eternal Nature of God, and his Ʋnitie, which was the great Article, for which he ſuffered a kind of Martyrdome. 2. The cor…uption of Humane Nature, or foreign &c. 3. A Native blindnes, in which all men were inveloped &c. 4. That Virtue was not teachable, and acquitable by Nature, or Art, but the product of Divine inſpiration.4. That Virtue comes from God. Thus Plato in Meno. fol. 89. brings in Socrates thus diſcourſing foreign &c. Having therefore often ſought if there were any Praeceptors of Virtue, after all my endeavours I could find none: ſo, fol. 99. foreign. Virtue is neither teachable, neither gained by ſcience. Then he brings in Socrates concluding more poſitively, thus, foreign. Virtue then is neither from Nature, nor Teachable; but it comes by a divine inſpiration, without the concurrence of humane understanding in thoſe to whom it is communicated, &c. Thus Plato. Yea he adds (in the ſame fol. 99.) That God uſeth the moſt unskilful inſtruments, in communicating this Grace to men, &c. 5. When alſo Socrates aſſerted, That all true knowledge of God came by Divine Infuſion. So Plato in his Alcibiad. fol. 124.5. That all true knowledge of God is by Divine infuſion. brings in Socrates thus beſpeaking Alcibiades, We have need of a Common Council, by what means we may become beſt. Neither doe I affirm this only of thee, Alcibiades, that thou wanteſt Diſcipline, but that I my ſelf, moſtly need it. Neither doe I at all differ from thee, this one thing being excepted; …hat my Tutor, namely God is better, and Wiſer than thine, viz. Pericles. So again Plato Alcibiad. fol. 135. brings in Socrates thus Dialogizing with Alcibiades. Socrates: Doſt thou know by wh… me…ns thou mayſt avoid this inordinate motion of thy mind? Alcibiades: Yes: Soc. How? p. 216Alcib. If thou wilt Socrates. Socrat. Thou ſpeakeſt not rightly Alcibiades. Alcib. How then muſt I ſpeak? Socrat. foreign, If God will, &c. Again, Plato in his Theaet. fol. 151. brings in Socrates alluring Theaetetus (a young man of an happie ingenie) to his Philoſophie: in order whereto he affirms, that he was foreign i. e. endowed with a Midwifes facultie to draw forth the conceptions of mens minds. But withall he adds that God alone was the Efficient, and he only a Midwife employed by God, foreign,Socrates's Daemo…. God has compelled me to play the Midwife, but forbad me to generate. and fol. 210. he expreſly ſaies, I and my Mother received this Midwifes facultie from God, &c. 6. Hence Socrates pretended to have a familiar Daemon alwaies attending, and inſpiring of him. So Plato Theagnes. 128. brings in Socrates thus diſcourſing, foreign, &c. There is by Divine Grace a Daemon, which has follo…ed me from my Childhood. This Daemon, is a voice, which ſignifies to me what I muſt doe, yet it does not compel me to do every thing: But if any of my friends communicate ſomewhat to me, and that voice d…hort me me from the ſame,Socrates utebatur Daemone foreign ſive domeſtico, & familiari; ex cujus pr…ſcripto omnia agebat: de quo integro libro de Deo Socratis Madaurenſis agit. Hornius i Hiſt. Phil. l. 3. c. 13. it alſo ſuffers me not to doe it, &c. So it's ſaid of Socrates that when one of his Scholars offered him Money for inſtructing him, he refuſed it, ſaying, his Daemon would not permit it. And Plato in his Sympoſion, brings in Socrates diſcourſing at large of this Daemon, his Office, &c. And Serranus in Plato's Apologie for Socrates tells us, That Socrates called his Divine Inſpiration foreign, a Daemon, a Voice, and a Signe. And by the aſſiſtance of this tutelar Daemon Socrates affirmed, that he inſtituted his whole life even from his childhood. Wh…t this Daemon was, whether a good, or bad Angel (whereof the latter is moſt probable) it concerns us not to debate: only this is evident from the whole, that Socrates acknowledged a neceſſitie of a ſupernatural, Divine, aſſiſtance for inſtruction, and direction &c. 7. Socrates acknowledgeth a neceſſitie of ſome Divine Purgatorie, or purgation to expel all noxious humours from the ſoul: So Plato Charmides 154. Socrates artificially feignes himſelf (ſaies he) a Phyſician; and teſtifies, that his Medicament would be ineffectual unleſs there preceed ſome foreign, preparatorie Pill, or enchantment, by the words whereof the diſeaſe may be driven out. This he illuſtrates by an excellent ſimilitude p. 217drawn from Medicine, which teacheth that general purgatives are to precede particulars: foreign, &c. So agen fol 157. he adds foreign. Socrates ſaid, that the ſoul was to be purged by certain Epoda's, or preparatories, and theſe Epoda's were Good, and Divine words. 8. Socrates ſeems to have ſome imperfect notices of Faith, and Prayer, 8. Of faith, and Prayer.according to the Scriptures notion thereof. So Plato Epinom. fol. 980. foreign, &c. Truſt on the Gods, and pray unto them, that meet apprehenſions of the nature of the Gods may come into thy minde. 9. Laſtly that Socrates had very clear apprehenſions of the ſoul's immortalitie, 9. Of the Soul it's immortalitie, &c.and it's ſeparate ſtate, will be evident to any, that views his dying diſcourſe of this Theme, as related by Plato in his Phaedo. By all which laid together it's evident: that Socrates had very Metaphyſical contemplations of Divine Myſteries, and that originally from the Jewiſh Church,

§. 5 Though Socrates was not without ſublime,Socrates's Active Moral Philoſophie how far contemplative. and deep contemplations of Divine things, yet the moſt of his Philoſophical diſcourſes in his Schole concerned Morals, and that for the reaſons afore mentioned. So Auguſt. Civit. l. 8. c. 4. In as much as the ſtudie of wiſdom conſiſts in Contemplation, and Action, Socrates is ſaid to excel moſt, in Active Philoſophie, whereas Pythagoras, inſiſted more upon Contemplative, &c. Not but that Socrates ſpent much time in Contemplation, as well as Pythagoras, for ſo Plato lib. 7. de Repub. brings in Adimantus thus ſpeaking unto Socrates, Thou haſt conſumed thy whole life in nothing elſe but Speculation; &c. Only herein lay the difference: Socrates made all his Contemplations ſubſervient unto Action, and valued not ſpeculative ſciences farther then they conduced to practice: for he made Man the whole ſubject of his philoſophie. So Plato in his Apologie for Socrates, tells us, how much time he ſpent in Contemplative Inquiſitions; but only ſo far, as they referred to Action: whereas Pythagoras, & ſo Plato in many of their inquiries made Truth the ultimate Object or End of their Contemplation, or Motion. Now it's well known, that the ſpecifick differrence betwixt Contemplative, and Active Philoſophie ariſeth not ſo much from their different Acts, as Objects, and Effects; for Active Philoſophie ſuppoſeth ſome Contemplation of Truth, as well as Contemplative; only in the latter, Truth is the ultimate Object, and ſole Effect; whereas the former conſiders Truth only as influential on Practice, according to that ancient p. 218determination, foreign. Practick Philoſophie is effective of Virtue, but Theoretick of Truth. Thus we ſee how Socrates's Philoſophie may be termed Active, though not excluſive of Contemplation. Namely as it is not only ſpeculative, and apprehenſive of Truth, but alſo practick, and cauſative of Virtue: wherein he was followed by the Cynicks, and Stoicks, All Philoſophie ought to determine in Virtue and Action.who acknowledged a Fraternitie, as being both deſcended from Socrates's ſchole, and herein agreed with him in making the chief end of Philoſophie to be foreign, To live according to Virtue. So Plato, who according to vniverſal conſent, received his Morals from Socrates, follows his Maſter therein, telling us, that Philoſophie is the way to true Felicitie, which has chiefly theſe two Offices, to Contemplate God, and to ſever the minde from Corporeal Phantaſmes. So agen Plato in his Euthydemus tells us, that Uſe in things holds the principal place, and the poſſeſſion of any thing, & therefore of ſcience it ſelf, which without the uſe thereof, is vain: So that if there could be a ſcience, which ſhould give us Immortalitie, yet were it of no value, if we underſtood not how to uſe it: whence he concludes foreign, Wiſdom therefore alwaies makes men to live happily. Agen he ſaies, That he deſerves very ill of Philoſophie, who lives not Philoſophically. i. e. according to the precepts of Philoſophie. And elſewhere he give us this principally as the ſpirits of all his Philoſophie, To Philoſophize is to know, to love, and to imitate God. Yea Ariſtotle his ſcholar who abounds in ſpeculation, does yet herein ſymbolize with him, and Socrates his Maſter: affirming that he alone is a true Philoſopher, who lives Philoſophically: So Ariſt. Eth. l. 2. c. 4. foreign. Many doe not theſe things, but flying to their reaſon they think to Philoſophize, and ſo to be virtuous, doing like to ſick men, who hear their Phyſitian diligently, but yet doe nothing of what he preſcribeth. As therefore theſe playing thus the Phyſicians, will never cure the bodie, ſo the other, thus Philoſophizing, will never cure the ſoul. But the Stoicks (as it has been already hinted) follow Socrates foreign, foot by foot reducing all Philoſphie to Moralitie. So Epictetus bid his Diſciples Not to tell the world they were Philoſophers by words, but by deeds: p. 219to act as Philoſophers, As (ſaies he) foreign &c. The ſheep do not bring their graſſe to the ſhepherd to ſhew how much they eate, but digeſting their food within, they bring forth a good Fleece, and Milk. And ſo do you; don't teach men, how they ought to eate, but eate as you ought, &c. So Seneca Epiſt. 75. He is not bleſsed, who knowes theſe things, but who does them. Epiſt. 94. What elſe is Philoſophie, but a law of Life? The like Seneca Epiſt. 90. Wiſdom ſets deeper, neither does ſhe teach the hands, but is the Miſtreſs of Minds: ſhe is a Queen, and Governeſs, Arts ſerve, but wiſdom governs the life, Seneca Epiſt. 117. The minde is wont to delight, rather then to heal it ſelf, and to make Philoſophie a Recreation, whereas it ought to be a Remedie. &c. To which we may adde that of Plutarch de placit. philoſ. l. 1. It behoves (ſaies he) a man (truly wiſe &) bleſſed foreign, To be not only Theoretick of Beings, but alſo practick of things wanting as to well-being. By all which we ſee what a general reception this active, and moral Philoſophie, which Socrates firſt brought into the Scholes, found amongſt all the following Sects, eſpecially the Stoicks. That Socrates reduced the whole of his Philoſophie to an foreign Ʋirtuous operation, is evident,Socrates's Moralitie. by what is mentioned of him in Stobaus Serm. 1. fol. 29. foreign. Some one asking Him (i. e. Socrates) what ſeemed to him the beſt inſtruction? He anſwered Eupraxie, or Well-doing— For he ſaid they were beſt, and moſt grateful to God in husbandrie, who tranſacted their husbandrie affaires well; In Phyſicks, who acted as good Phyſicians; In Politicks, who diſpatched the Politick concerns well. But he, that does nothing well, ſaid he, is neither profitable, nor (Theophiles) grateful to God. Thus Stobaeus, who alſo in what follows, ſerm. 1. fol. 29.) tells us out of Xenophon, lib. 2. de Secrat. that Socrates made this his practice whereſoever he came to do Good, &c. foreign. Thus Socrates was in every affair, and according to every p. 220reſpect uſeful, wherefore nothing was more beneficial than to have converſation with Socrates, and conference with him in every place, and matter: for he profited thoſe, who converſed with him, no leſſe in recreation, than in ſerious ſtudies, and conferences: Thus Stobaeus. So Plutarch acquaints us, that Socrates taught not only in the Chair, but even in his recreations, in his eating, in the Field, in the Market, finally, when he was in Priſon; thus he made every place a Schole of Virtue, &c. As for the ſeverals of Socrates's Moral Philoſophie, we have no exact account thereof, becauſe he left nothing in Writing; only we may look upon moſt of Plato's Moral Philoſophizings as extracts (though with ſome flouriſhes, and intermixtures of his own) of Socrates's Principles; for it is a received opinion amongſt the Ancients, that Plato owes the original of his Moral Philoſophie to Socrates, as Auguſtin. &c. But yet we ſhall give one or two particulars of Socrates's Morals, &c.

1 His Inſtitutes againſt ſelf conceitednes, and flaterie, with advice to ſtudie our ſelves.1. He made it a great part of his deſign to ſtrip men of their affected conceited opinions of their own wiſdom. He ſeemed to have ſome kind of feeling ſenſe, how apt men are to be their own flatterers, to abound in the ſenſe of their own parts and ſufficiencies, and therefore he laies this as the firſt principle, and foundation of all Philoſophie Know thy ſelf: So Plato (Alcibiad. 24) brings in Socrates adviſing Alcibiades to the ſtudie of himſelf thus: foreign. But believe me, and the Delphick Oracle, Know thy ſelf. He tells us (fol. 134) that they who know not themſelves, know nothing of their own goods, or ills, nor of any ſuch thing, that belonged to them, yea that they knew nothing of other affaires; and therefore could never make good Politicians, or Governours of Families. He alſo affirms, that all ſin proceeds from a conceited ignorance, which makes men preſume they know, what indeed they are ignorant of. He ſhews how many have erred from the beſt Marke, becauſe they truſted to their own opinion; whereas thoſe, who are conſcious of their ignorance, will commit themſelves to the teaching of others. He ſaies this is the beſt Modeſtie, and Wiſdom foreign, to know a man's ſelf. He gives us the root of this Self-knowledge, namely the knowledge of God, &c. He alſo informs us touching its true Object, and Act: viz. that it is a reflex knowledge of the ſoul, its Habits, Acts, &c. And the more effectually to convince Alcibiades of his foreign and p. 221proud arrogance, Socrates draws a parallel 'twixt him, & the Perſian Monarchs thereby to ſhew him how inconſiderable he was: ſo Plato Alcibiades, fol. 102.

2.2. For the government of the tongue. Socrates gave many excellent precepts for the government of the Tongue as Stobaeus Serm. 3.44. foreign to be a lover of hearing, more than a lover of ſpeaking. Agen foreign, Seal thy words with ſilence, and thy ſilence with opportunitie, wherein he Pythagorized. Laſtly, albeit Socrates gave many excellent Moral Inſtitutes, yet was he greatly defective both as to Principles, and Practice: as hereafter.

§. 6. As for Socrates's Mode, or Forme of Philoſophizing,Socrates's mode, or forme of Philoſophizing, Natural, and familiar. it was in the general ſuitable to his matter, natural, familiar, and plain, not artificial. He ſuited his Forme to his Matter, according to the method of Nature, not his Matter to his Forme, as the ſcholes now doe. For the matter of his Philoſophie being chiefly Moral, he fitted his forme thereto. In particular, the Socratick Mode, or Forme of Philoſophizing was Twofold, 1. Rhetorical, or Suaſive, 2. Dialectick, or Perſuaſive. 1. As to Socrates's Rhetorical mode of Philoſophizing,1. His Rhetorick mode Ironical. it was by Ironie: and indeed his whole life was but a kind of Ironie, or diſſimulation, whence he was called foreign i. e. One that acts the part of a Fool, though moſt Wiſe. Cicero (de orat. 2.) tells us That Socrates exceeded all men in this Ironical diſſimulation, mixing a ſweet Urbanitie, and pleaſantnes with his diſcourſes: ſo Stobaeus ſaies, that his Jeſts were inſtructive. 2. As for Socrates's Dialectical Demonſtrative, and Perſuaſive Mode of Philoſophizing, it was alſo Natural,2. His Dialectick by Induction, which conſiſted of Interrogations. and Familiar, not Artificial, as that in Ariſtotle's ſchole. In brief, Socrates's natural Logick conſiſted in Induction; which Cicero [de Iuvent. 1.) defines a Diſcourſe, that gains aſſent to things doubtful, by the aſſent which is yeelded to things not doubtful. Lud. Vives (in Aug. Civ. l. 8. c. 7.) acquaints us, that this Socratick Induction is of all moſt powerful; which none uſed more happily than Socrates; whence Quintilian commends it to his Orator; whence alſo Plato borrowed his Mode of Dialogizing, &c. This kind of reaſoning Socrates affected, becauſe he would not himſelf uſe any arguments of perſuaſion, but rather work ſomewhat out of what was granted. This is diſcurſive Induction Socrates formed into, and expreſſed by Interrogations, as it's evident to any, that ſhall conſider his diſcourſes in Plato. So Hornbeeck ſumma Controverſ. pag. 56. Alwaies (ſaies Hornbeck) p. 222approved the Socratick mode of Diſputing, wherein, by continued, & preſſing interrogations, and anſwers, the truth at laſt is ſo certainly gathered, and concluded, that it eaſily gains an aſſent from all; which as elſewhere, ſo eſpecially in Plato's Hippia he obſerves, &c. Socrates made uſe of this kind of Argumentation by Interrogations, thereby to draw forth the concluſion he aimed to prove, even from the gradual conceſſions of his opponents: for he was wont to ſay he knew nothing himſelf, only like a barren Midwife he was endowed with a particular gift for the aſſiſting others to bring forth their own conceptions. So Plato Theaet. fol. 210. foreign,Theſe Dialectical interrogations of Jewiſh original. This Midwifes Art, I, and my Mother received from God, &c. In theſe Dialogizing diſputes Socrates attributed more to his opponents, detracting from himſelf, for he pretended ſtill to know nothing, and therefore refuſed to take Money of his Scholars. Thence Ariſtotle, 2 Elench. Sophiſt. cap. 8. ſaies. That Socrates alwaies interrogated, but never replied, becauſe he profeſſed he knew nothing. This Natural and familiar mode of reaſoning by queſtions and anſwers uſed in Socrates's Schole ſeems an exact imitation of, and derivation from the Jewiſh mode of Diſputation. So Mark 8.11. 'Tis ſaid the Phariſees came forth, & began to queſtion with him, &c. 'tis ſo in the Greek foreign to diſpute with him by queſtions: So Grotius on this place: The ancient manner of Diſputing, ſaies he, was by Interrogations. But more expreſly Luke 11.53. 'Tis ſaid the Scribes, and Phariſees began to urge him vehemently, foreign, i. e. by Interrogations, unto which they required an extemporary anſwer, ſo it follows, and to provoke him to ſpeak of many things, foreign. This word (ſaies Grotius) was taken from the Scholes, where the Maſters were wont to ſet the riper Scholars to poſe the younger by Interrogations, whence in the New Teſtament the words foreign, and foreign uſually ſignifie to diſpute, i. e. by Dialogues, or queſtions, and anſwers, which was the mode of diſputing in the Jewiſh Scholes, and thence traduced unto the Grecian, and continued amongſt them till Ariſtotle reduced this natural Logick to an Artificial way of Syllogizirg in Mode and Figure, of which more hereafter, in Plato's mode of Philoſophizing. In theſe diſputations of Socrates, he intends more the drawing forth, …nd revincing the opinion of his Opponent, than the delivering and eſtabliſhing of his own. For he conceived it not his concern, who affirmed he knew nothing, to aſſert any thing, as he p. 223himſelf declareth in Plato's Theaetetus. And this his modeſt ſuſpenſion, or conceling his own opinion, laid the Foundation of thoſe differing Sects, which ſprang from him; eſpecially of the Academical foreign, or ſuſpenſion: of which hereafter. Howbeit Socrates's modeſtie would not permit him to aſſert, and confirme his own foreign, or Hypotheſes, yet was he very bold, and Ironical in refuting the proud aſſumings of ſuch as pretended they knew all things. So Auguſt. de Civit. l. 8. c. 3. It is apparent (ſaies he) that Socrates did in his very Moral queſtions, whereto he ſeems wholly to addict himſelf, either by his confeſſed ignorance, or diſſembled knowledge, with an admirable pleaſantnes, and moſt acute urbanitie agitate, and overturne the follie of unlearned perſons, who thought they knew ſomewhat, &c. All theſe Philoſophick Contemplations of Socrates laid together, ſufficiently argue their original to be Divine, and Sacred. Yea Juſtin Martyr, and other of the Fathers, conceived, that he lived foreign, & that he did foreign in part acknowledge Chriſt. So Juſtin Martyr Apol. ad Senat. & Anton. Hornius Hiſt. Eccleſ. l. 3. c. 13. 'Tis poſſible that Socrates's Daemon might be no other, than the Divine foreign, or Spirit of God.

§. 7. This fervor of Socrates mixed with an Ironical facetiouſnes in overturning the proud conceited ignorance of ſome,The occaſion and inſtruments of his Death. who fancyed they knew all things, is ſuppoſed to give the occaſion of his condemnation, and death. So Auguſt. de Civit. l. 8. c. 3.) in what follows ſaies, that from theſe endeavours of Socrates to diſcover the follie of theſe ignorant Sophiſts, enmities being ſtirred up, he was by a calumnious crimination condemned, and puniſhed with death, &c. Plato in his Apologie for Socrates affirmes, that theſe odiums, and feudes befel Socrates by reaſon of his diſputations againſt theſe proud Sophiſts. The ſame Laertius: There were three, that accuſed Socrates Anytus, Melitus, and Lycon the Orator, who was the Actor; whereas Anytus defended the rout of Artificers, and the reſt of the Athenians, whom Socrates often derided; and Melitus defended the Poets, when Socrates had condemned, and judged to be expelled the Citie. The main crime they accuſe him of was his denying a multiplicitie of Gods &c. for which he was condemned by 281 ſuffrages. Immediately before his death, after he had taken the poyſon, he makes a learned, and undaunted diſcourſe about the immortalitie of the Soul, and its ſtate in ſeparation from the bodie &c. and when he felt the paines of Death growing upon him, he p. 224takes his leave of his Scholars,Tandem cum nonnullorum odia in ſe concitaſſet, accuſatus quòd corrumperet javentutem, et novas ſuperſtitiones induceret ad cicutae forbitionem condemnatus eſt Socrates. Quint. l. 4. c. 4. Apul. 10. miles. Hornius, Hiſt. Phil. l. 3. c. 13. Socrates's Character. enjoyning them to go, and Sacrifice a Cock to Eſculapius the Daemon-god of Medicine, as a thankful acknowledgement for ſo ſweet, and noble a death: of which ſee Plato's Phaedo about the end; alſo his, and Xenophon's Apologies for Socrates, with Diogenes Laertius, where we find Socrates pleading, that his Enemies overwhelmed him not with Crimes, but envie only, &c. And the Athenians were ſo greatly affected with the injurie done to Socrates, that a little after they cauſed all their Scholes to be ſhut, and puniſhed Melitus with death, Anytus with baniſhment, erecting a brazen Statue to Socrates, as Auſtin: and Ludov. Vives in Aug. Civit. l. 8. c. 2. gives him this great Character. This is that Socrates of whom nothing can be ſufficiently ſaid for his Dignitie, who, as it's manifeſt, was the wiſeſt of all the Gentiles, and came neareſt of all to the Chriſtian Wiſdom: He was borne at Athens, Sophroniſcus being his Father, &c. He was a Man temperate, chaſt, juſt, modeſt, patient of injuries; not greedie of riches, pleaſures, no nor yet of glorie, for it's certain he writ nothing. He was the firſt, who whilſt others profeſſed to know all things, profeſſed himſelf to know nothing. Thus Lud. Vives. To which may be added that of Hornius, Socrates erat vir acutus, feſtivus, laborem tolerans, non tam praeceptis quàm exemplo docens: quem, & Lactantius caeteris non paulo cordatiorem fuiſſe concedit. Socrates was eminent for his Acumen, Eloquence, Diligence, Inſtructing, as well by his Example as Precepts; and ſuch as Lactantius alſo acknowledgeth to have far ſurpaſt others (Heathen Philoſophers) for Wiſdom, Horn. Hiſt. Phil. lib. 3. cap. 13. Yet ſome ſay, Socrates was not exempted from that great Gentile uncleannes, which the wiſeſt and beſt of thoſe Gentile Philoſophers were guiltie of, mentioned Rom. 1.21, 27. as elſewhere.

Of Socrates's Scholars, and their different perſuaſions about Morals, the chiefeſt Good, &c. whence they fell into divers Sects.§. 8. Though Socrates writ nothing himſelf, yet his Diſputes were committed to Writing by his Scholars: amongſt whom Xenophon was the firſt, and moſt punctual; for Plato uſeth a great libertie in interlining his own Sentiments with his Maſters Dogmes. And albeit Socrates confined himſelf to Morals, and in his Philoſophizings thereon uſed a plain method, yet after his death, his Scholars fell into ſeveral Factions, and Sects, which ſprang from their differing Apprehenſions about the chiefeſt Good, and the chiefeſt Evil. So Auſtin (Civit. l. 8. c. 3.) Therefore Socrates by reaſon of his ſo great Fame, both living, and dead, left behind him many Sectator… of his Philoſophie, whoſe p. 225Eriſtick ſtudie was to be verſed in the Controverſies of Moral Queſtions, wherein the chiefeſt Good conſiſted? which not evidently appearing in Socrates's Diſputes, whil'ſt he ſtarted, and aſſerted, and deſtroyed every thing, every one formed ſuch a chief Good, as ſeemed moſt pleaſing to him. Thus had theſe Socraticks differing perſwaſions about this laſt end; ſome placing the chiefeſt Good in Pleaſures, as Ariſtippus; ſome in Virtue, as Antiſthenes, &c. Indeed all the Sects of the Ionick Philoſophie, ſeem to owe their Original to Socrates's Schole, eſpecially the Cyreniack, Cynick, Eleatick, Megarick, Academick, Platonick, Stoick.

1. Of Socrates's Scholars, Xenophon, Xenophon.and Aeſchinus, the Socratick clave faſt to their Maſter, without founding a new Sect.

2. Ariſtippus the Cyrenian, Ariſtippus Founder of the Cyreniack…another of Socrates's Scholars founded the Cyreniack Sect, whoſe main Principle was, that the chiefeſt Good lay in Pleaſure, whence the whole Sect was called foreign, as the Epicureans after them.

3. Antiſthenes another of Socrates's Scholars,Antiſthenes of the Cynicks, and Stoicks. founded the Cynick Sect. His chief Poſition was, that Virtue was the chiefeſt Good, foreign, wherein he was followed by Zeno his Scholar, who was the Founder of the Stoick Sect, which as to Morals held a great communion with the Cynicks, and they both with Socrates, &c.

4. Another of Socrates's Scholars was Euclid the Megarick, Euclid of the Megaricks.whoſe Followers were thence called Megaricks, and afterwards Eriſticks; and by ſome Dialecticks, becauſe they exerciſed themſelves chiefly in Dialectick Queſtions, which humor Euclid ſuckt in, not from Socrates, but Parmenides, and Zeno the Eleatick.

5. Phaedo of Elia, another of Socrates's Scholars,Phaedo of the Eleaticks. eſtabliſhed the Eleatick Sect. He writ many of Socrates's Elegant Speeches.

6. But the moſt renowned of all Socrates's Scholars, was Plato, Plato of the Academicks.that famous Founder of the old Academie, whence the new Academicks deſcended; as the Platoniſts: as it follows.