The Reformed School, Part 25 – Letter
Of Teaching LOGICK.
BY Logick I underſtand the Art or skill, to make right uſe of our reaſoning Facultie. The facultie of Reaſon in man, is that abilitie, by which he can ſet his thoughts in order to judge of all things, which are in his Imaginations.
As large then as the Imagination or Fancy of Man is, ſo large is the uſe of Reaſon; that is to ſay, it doth reach unto all things, that can be thought upon, for all the thoughts of the heart of Man are contained under this notion of Imaginations; whether they have an Idea or not expreſly formed in the mind; for ſome thoughts are negative to all Ideas. By an Idea I mean the ſhape and repreſentation of ſomething which the mind doth frame unto it ſelf by the Imaginative Facultie: for, the imaginative Facultie is like a looking-glaſſe, which being turned to any object whatſoever doth receive the ſhape thereof, and repreſents it to the eye of the Underſtanding: If then the underſtanding Facultie doth look upon the ſhapes of things, which are in the Imagination not confuſedly, but in an orderly way, to compare them and lay them together for ſome purpoſe and aim, for which they are taken into conſideration; then it is ſaid to proceed rationally; but if it hath either no aim at all or no command of its own thoughts or sk… to rule and order them to that aim, which … doth conſider them for: then it doth procee… without Reaſon. Now becauſe to man, t… Facultie of Reaſoning is that univerſall Light by which he is to guide his wayes in all particular objects as well of Meditation, as o… Action; therefore if this Light be darkene… in him, then all is nothing but darkneſſe: b… if the eye of his Reaſon be clear, then all i… full of Light, which he doth undertake to Ac… or Meditate. For this cauſe the Art of Reaſoning as to Man, is the chief of all othe… Arts and Sciences in humane things; for by i… all other Arts are found out; and whatſoever is amiſſe in them may be rectified: and conſequently to teach how to make uſe of that Reaſoning Facultie, which we have to ſome good purpoſe, is in all humane things, the matter of greateſt importance that can be thought: and yet ſuch is the miſerie of our life, that there is ſcarce any thing leſſe minded; or when minded, leſſe taught in a right and profitable way. I ſhall not at this time intend to make this charge good againſt the ordinary Teachers of Logick, who for the moſt part, are ſo farre out of the way of right Reaſoning, that their very precepts are leſſ… …en rationall, and they themſelves incapable … better Rules, till they be wholly untaught …at which they have learned. But I ſhall (as …iefly as may be, to be well underſtood) deli…r my conceptions of the right way of teach…g young Scholars the Art of Reaſoning by a …oſitive Method to direct them in it, that in…nd to teach others. I will ſuppoſe then, that young Scholar is brought unto me, who is … puris Naturalibus (as we uſe to ſay) that …, who is capable of inſtitution in this kind, … being no wayes prepoſſeſſed with any ha…its, which may make him unfit to receive …he documents which are to be given him: …nd as being onelyonly poſſeſſed with the com…on Notions of Naturall things which are …he objects of humane Senſes; and under…tanding no more, but the proper ſenſe of all …he words of the Language, by which the Notions are expreſſed in the common ſpeech wherein he is to be taught. To ſuch a young …an I firſt would deliver ſome common Pre…ognitions concerning Logick, and afterward would exerciſe his Reaſoning Facultie in the way of Meditation whereof I ſhould find him …apable, growing upon him by degrees, till I …hould make him maſter of the uſe of all his …houghts, to all purpoſes, which he ſhould ap…ly them unto.
The Precognitions ſhould bring him to conſider himſelf.
1. That he hath a Naturall abilitie to think and meditate, as all other men have.
2. That men of underſtanding are diſtinguiſhed from fools by this, that they ca… make uſe of this Abilitie underſtandingly that is to ſay, that they underſtand themſelves what they do think and meditate, i… what order and to what purpoſe.
3. That therefore there is ſome way to order and direct the thoughts of the mind: that they may not wander at random as fools thoughts uſe to do.
4. That this way to order and direct our thoughts, being taught and delivered by certain Precepts is called the Art of Reaſoning or Logick: and that he who is exerciſed to follow the ſame is a Rationall man or good Logician.
5. That of all other ſtudies, this is the moſt worthy of a Man, moſt profitable and moſt neceſſary to attain to the happineſſe of this life, ſo farre as by humane faculties it is attainable: and therefore, with moſt earneſt Affections and deſires to be attended unto.
Having by ſuch Preparations as theſe are, fitted his Underſtanding and raiſed his Affections to docilitie and attention; I would begin to deliver unto him ſome Precepts concerning the uſe of his firſt Notions, and ſingle thoughts, to reach him to take notice of them, what they are: not reflexively by the Term of a ſecond Notion (as the ordinary Logicians do, teaching their Scholars to ſpeak they know not what, nor to what uſe) but directly in the Terms of a ſingle Propoſition, to cauſe him to take notice of the Sub…ect and Praedicat thereof, and of the conne…ion of each to other in a way Affirmative and Negative: ſhewing him that every word …n our common ſpeech, doth ſtand for a ſingle …hought or Notion of the Mind, and that …he words which we ſpeak, ſhould in their order and coherence expreſſe the order and coherence of our thoughts.
Having then ſhewed him what a ſingle Propoſition is, what parts it is made up of; How theſe Parts are ſet together in our thoughts: what the Differences of ſingle Notions are; and of the wayes of their ſet…ing together to make a Propoſition of them; …nd how a ſingle Propoſition doth differ from … compound: How a compound is made up of two, three or more ſingle ones: and what …he wayes of compoſition are, and their diffe…ences; and conſequently, How many ſorts …f Compound Propoſitions there are in our Notions to make up a Period of ſpeech: ha…ing, I ſay, ſhewed him all this, not in abſtra…o and Notionally, but by an Example of very kind, and in concreto, as it were ſenſibly in the Period of ſome diſcourſe laid open to his thoughts, and analyſed before him; that they may be as it were led by the hand to conſider of it; then I would ſet him a dayly task of new Examples which he ſhould be obliged to take into his conſideration, to Reſolve Analytically by himſelf according to theſe Precepts, which I ſhould have given him concerning ſingle and compound Notions and Propoſitions; to the end that by thi… exerciſe of his thoughts in Reſolving the ordinary Periodicall Diſcourſes of Rational men into theſe Parts and Particles of Pa… whereunto they are Rationally Reſoluble: he may be accuſtomed to obſerve what uſe me… make of their Notions ſingle and compound to the extent of one Period of their Diſcourſes: Now whether the Notions which he i… exerciſed in be materially Rationall or no; not at all materiall to his Inſtruction, becauſ… in this firſt degree of Precepts, he is one… taught to take notice of the Difference … Notions, and of the frames wherein rhey a… ſet together, in the expreſſions which ratio…nally men uſe or may be uſed, but wheth… they be rightly uſed in this place, and in re…ſpect of ſuch and ſuch matter yea or no, th… is not to be the object of his conſideration… this time, that is to be taught afterward due time.
This being done I would proceed with him to the ſecond degree of Precepts, which ſhould direct him to underſtand the uſe of his thoughts in matter of Conſequence, when one Propoſition is drawn out of another and becomes a concluſion ariſing from it. Here I would let him know what a Conſequence is, How many wayes Conſequences may be inferred from premiſes, and what the Principles are, from which Conſequences are raiſed, and by which they are to be tryed, and may be made Concluſions. In this part of the Doctrine as in the former, I would ſhew him by examples of every kind, how men of underſtanding make uſe of their thoughts, analyſing their diſcourſes wherein ſuch Acts of Reaſoning are expreſſed, whereof he ſhould have received Precepts; and then according to the pattern of Meditation, which I ſhould have given him in this kind, I would oblige him to exerciſe himſelf by certain diſcourſes containing Principles and Conſequences drawn from them in ſome Authours, which he ſhould be put to reſolve, as to the matter of Conſequentiall Inferences, and the Acts of drawing Concluſions from Premiſes to obſerve; how theſe that uſe to diſcourſe rationally do order their thoughts and expreſſe the ſame to the capacitie of others.
Then the Scholar whom I ſhould have taught theſe things, ſhould in the third place be directed to take notice of the Acts of Reaſon, which are employed about the Apprehenſion of Arguments, and the relation of one thing to another by the Notion of an Argument. Here then he ſhould be taught what an Argument is, How many differen… ſorts of Arguments there are in the uſe of Reaſon to be laid hold on; what their different Relations are, and force of arguing, towards that whereof they are conceived to be Arguments. This alſo ſhould be laid ope… to him by Precept and Example, and Practically in the Analyſis of ſome Diſcourſe; or parcels of Diſcourſe in an Authour ſhewed▪ How theſe that are moſt rationall make uſe of thoſe Arguments in their Diſcourſes▪ and when he hath been taught to obſerve theſe acts of Reaſon in an Author, he ſhould be pu… as at former times to analyticall Tasks to reſolve the matter of ſome diſcourſe into the ſeverall Arguments which it containeth, a… they ſtand ſingly by themſelves, whereby he ſhould be able upon examination to tell me where his Authour maketh uſe of an Argument taken from the Cauſe, or from the Effect, or from the Subject, or Adjunct, or the whole or the part, or contrary or ſimilitude▪ &c. and when he ſhould be complete in this kind of Exerciſe, then he ſhould be brought to the fourth and laſt degree of Analyticall Doctrine, which is to learn to conſider the whole Body of a diſcourſe, and to obſerve all the Acts of Reaſon, which a man of underſtanding doth make uſe of therein. Here then he is to be taught what a Rationall Diſcourſe is, what is to be obſerved in it. viz. the Subject whereof it ſpeaketh: the Scope and Purpoſe whereto it ſpeaketh; the Parts whereof it is made up; their Coherence and Diſtinction, as well in reſpect of the main Body, as of every particular member of this Diſcourſe, and the order of every thing contained in it, with a reference to the matter and ſcope, that the whole wiſdome of the Authour may be diſcovered. And to inſtruct him to obſerve all this in an Authour I would Analyſe a Diſcourſe to ſhew him, How he ſhould proceed in ordering his thoughts to reflect upon all theſe things in his Authour; and having both by Precept and Example ſhewed him what he ought to do: I would give him a task to exerciſe his mind to do the like, and wherein he ſhould fail, I would rectifie him till he ſhould be complete in this Act, and uſe of his Reaſon alſo.
All this being done by theſe degrees of Analyticall Doctrine, and as it were experimentall manuduction of his thoughts to the Practiſe and uſe of Reaſon; I woul… then bring him to exerciſe his Reaſon Genetically, that is by a way of begetting an… producing Notions within himſelf concerning a Subject which ſhould be given him to Meditate on Rationally. Here then he ſhould be taught what the Difference and uſe is of Analyſis and Geneſis: viz. that by the exerciſe of the former we reflect upon the Acts of other mens Reaſoning, and by the exerciſe of the latter we ſtirre up our own Facultie to make uſe of it, to produce Acts anſwerable to the Rules which we have been taught. And to make him complete in this way alſo, Firſt the Precepts belonging to the way are to be delivered, and then an Example of thoſe Precepts is to be given, and according to theſe Precepts and Example he is to be exerciſed, firſt to meditate upon a ſimple thema. (as they call it) Genetically, and then upon a compound thema. By a thema is meant a Matter of Meditation, which is either a ſingle Notion or a Propoſition, either ſimple or compound: of which things it is needleſſe now to ſpeak at large. The ſumme of all is this: that the Right uſe of Reaſon is to be taught firſt in the Practiſe, before it be taught in the Theorie, and the Analyticall way of Practice is to go before the Geneticall, and in this teaching the ſeverall degrees of every Practice are to be obſerved, and in every degree, whether the Precepts directing the to mind obſerve the Rules of Practice, go before the Example which the Teacher is to propoſe; or whether they follow the ſame as obſervations, to cauſe the mind reflect upon the things to be imitated in the example, or whether ſome Precepts be given by way of Praecognita before, or ſome by way of obſervation after the example; it is not greatly materiall: if they never be ſeparate, but go in their own degree of exerciſe together, the one alwayes giving light to the other, and both fitted by the Prudencie of the Teacher to the capacitie of the Scholar. And when the uſe of Reaſon hath been thus fully taught in a Practicall way; then the Scientificall and Notionall Precepts thereof are to be delivered reflexively upon the Rules of Practice, which have been fully conceived. For the direct knowledge muſt be propoſed before the reflex be offered, becauſe none can reflect upon his way of knowing before he hath attained it; therefore the way of knowing Actually muſt be experimentally propoſed, before the Theoreticall way of apprehending matters be reflexively taught; which is quite oppoſite to the Practice of thoſe that teach Logick in an ordinary way: who deliver all even to Children Reflexively and Scientifically: before they exerciſe them in any point of Practice, except in that of a confuſed, endleſſe, unprofitable way of diſputing about Notions which is falſly called Logick, by which means thoſe that ſhould be made Scholars of Right Reaſon, are made habitually wranglers about the Terms of an Art, which they never have been taught: and in ſtead of making uſe of their Rationall Facultie, to ſet it in a way to order their Imaginations aright, they are onelyonly directed and exerciſed to ſubtilize their Imaginations, and pride themſelves in this mainly to have ſuch conceptions, a… are beyond the vulgar Capacitie. As if to ſpeak things in the air and out of the common uſe were to be Rationall: but of the originall of theſe Abuſes, of the way, How men ſhould be convicted of them and the means, How to rectifie them: and of the more ſpeciall method of teaching the True Art of Reaſoning in all the degrees and Parts of the Practice and Theorie thereof; I hope I ſhall at another time be able to ſpeak more fully, when God ſhall give me better leiſure without diſtraction to elaborate ſuch tasks as in this and other Kinds lie upon my hand. In the mean while, take this as a taſte of what may follow in due time; both for the Illuſtration of this way by examples, and for the more particular deduction of every thing belonging …hereunto. I reſt upon all occaſions of ſer…ice in this or any other kind,
Your affectionate and Loving Friend and Servant in Chriſt JOHN DURY.
A COPY of Mr JOHN DURY'S Letter to SAMUEL HARTLIB.
Dear Friend,
I Am glad that the Directory for the Education of Children, and teaching of Sciences is to your liking; I would be more glad if God would open it a way for us to put in practice: and although nothing ſhould be done therein by our ſelves in theſe diſtracted times; …et it may be a ſatisfaction to our minds, that we have not been wanting …o our generation, ſo farre as God hath …nabled us to trace the wayes of doing …ervice to the publick; and that we …ave not buried our talents in the …round, when opportunities have been offered to us to employ them. You hav… told me once or twice at ſeverall oc…caſions, that the Diſcourſes whic… Dr Kinner hath ſent you from beyon… Seas tend wholly to the ſame Sco… which I have propoſed to my ſelf in th… Directory which I have ſent you; an… that my Conceptions are as it were … Abridgement of that which he ha… written to you; as if I had read h… contrivement of matters; and take the cream of his whole counſell. … is very poſſible that men of the ſa… Judgement and Principles, ſetti… themſelves to order one and the ſam… work, though they never have confe…red notions, may agree upon one a… the ſame way: I am glad that … thoughts and his, though neither … us have had the peruſall of one an…thers papers, or any communicatio… with each other about that ſubject, … ſo concurre, as to confirm you in th… way which is moſt ſatisfactory to you… …udgement: you may ſay then to the …orld; that you have two witneſſes to …e and the ſame Truth, and way of Righteouſnes; and that Gods Spirit, and …ight Reaſon ſpeaks the ſame thing in all …en; in all the parts of the world.
I ſhall be glad at a convenient time, … ſee thoſe papers, whereof you ſay I …ave already given you the ſubſtance …efore I ever ſaw them: for I ſuppoſe …hey will not onelyonly adde to my thoughts …pon that Subject; but perhaps give me …ccaſion to adde ſomething to him for …he accompliſhment of your deſires, and …he benefit of the Publick, whereunto …ou know I have dedicated my ſelf; and …herein by Gods grace ſhall perſevere …nto the end: I reſt,
Your moſt affectionate and faithfull Servant in Chriſt, JOHN DURY.
FINIS.
End of the text · John Dury, The Reformed School (1649)