Abstract of Logic, Book 1 · Chapter 22
CHAP. XXII. Of Oppoſition of things.
Ax. 1. OPpoſition is a Fight, or Battle of things.
Ax. 2. Things are ſaid to fight, which cannot truly be affirm'd, either of each other or the ſame Third, according to the ſame, to the ſame in the ſame Manner, and in the ſame time.
COMMENTARY.
1 §. Thoſe things which are by Ariſtotle call'd foreign, are by Cicero called Contraries. We call them Oppoſed. Of Oppoſitions, one is in things another in Affirmation and Negation; that is an Affection of Simple, this of Complex Themes. Of Oppoſitions of things which is of this Place, Ariſtotle treats Cap. 10. of the Categories; of the other in his Book of Interpret. In both, four Conditions are required, which are delivered Cap. 5. of his Book de Soph. Elench. The firſt is, that it be according to the ſame, that is, according to the ſame Part, or Nature. The other is, that it ſhould be to the ſame, that is, in the ſame reſpect. The third, in the ſame Manner. The fourth in the ſame time. If with theſe Conditions Oppoſites are predicated of each other, the Predication will be falſe: As, a Man is an Horſe, Blindneſs is the Sight: Or, if both are predicated of any one Third, one of them muſt be falſe, as Socrates ſees, Socrates is blind: If of one another or any Third they are affirmed truly, of Neceſſity one of the Conditions muſt be wanting. For Example: To be David's Lord, and Son, agrees with the ſame Chriſt, but not according to the ſame: For Chriſt is David's Lord as to his Divine, his Son as to his Humane Nature. So the Number of four is both a Double and a Half; but not to the ſame: For it's the Double of Two, and the Half of Eight. Beſides 'tis true, both that the World has, and the World has not a Beginning, but not in the ſame Manner: For the World has a Beginning of Duration, but not of Magnitude, becauſe round. Laſtly, it is true, that of old the Miletians were valiant, and of old, the Miletians were not valiant; but not at the ſame time.
2. §. But altho' Oppoſites cannot be predicated of the ſame, ſaving theſe Conditions; Nothing hinders but that the ſame may be predicated of things oppoſed; as Colour, of Whiteneſs and Blackneſs; Animal, of Beaſt and Man, &c. and this brings us to the next Conſiderations, viz. That,
Ax. 3. Oppoſites are together in Nature, and That,
Ax. 4. The Knowledge of them is the ſame.
1. §. The firſt of theſe Axioms is extant Book 6. of the Top. Cap. 4. The latter, Book 1. of the Top. Cap. 14.2. Cap. 2.6. Cap. 6. and almoſt every where. The Meaning of the laſt, may be two-fold, and firſt, that both appertain to one Science, as that the ſame which for Inſtance treats of Virtue may alſo treat of Vice; and of Diſeaſes, alſo of Health. Secondly that one oppoſite being known, the other may be known alſo. 5thly,
Ax. 5. Oppoſites plac'd, near to each other, are the more Illuſtrated.
1. §. This is the ſame with the old Saying which is deliver'd Book 3. of the Rhetor. Cap. 2. Contraries by Contraries are illuſtrated; the Uſe of which is to be ſeen Cap. 2. of the Rhet. Where the contrary Affects and Manners of young and old Men are ſo conferr'd together, that by the mutual Collation of them, they are very much illuſtrated.
Ax. 6. The Species's of Oppoſites are five, viz. Diſparates, Contraries, Relatively Oppoſed, Privatively Oppoſed, and Contradictings; and we prove it in this Manner, viz.
1. §. An Oppoſite is either oppoſed to many or one. Thoſe of which one is oppoſed to many, are call'd Diſparates; when one to one, the Oppoſition is, either between Being and no Being, or between Being and Being. Thoſe Oppoſed as Being and Being, are either Abſolute, or Related: Thoſe are ſaid to be Contraries, theſe Relatively Oppoſed: Thoſe things that are oppoſed as Being and no Being, either have the ſame Subject, or they have not; Thoſe that have the ſame Subject, are ſaid to be privatively oppoſed; thoſe that have not, to be Contradictings.
2. §. Ariſtotle makes no mention of Diſparates in his Logicks, where he profeſſedly treats of the Species's of Oppoſites; but yet he does in the 4th Book of his Metaph. Cap. 10. where he calls them diverſe in Species, that is, thoſe things that are affected after a contrary Manner by reaſon of their Eſſence: But to proceed,
Ax. 7. Diſparates are thoſe of which one is oppoſed to many after the ſame manner.
1. §. So Man and Horſe, and White and Blue, are Diſparates; becauſe Man is not only oppos'd to Horſe, but alſo to Dog, Lion, and other Species's of Beaſts; and White not only to Blue, but alſo to Red, Green, and the other mediate Colours, in the ſame manner, that is, in the ſame Genus of Oppoſition: But now Black and White are not Diſparates, notwithſtanding they may be oppoſed not only to Black, but alſo to the middle Colours: For becauſe White is other ways oppoſed to Black, than it is to the Middle Colours. So neither Freeman and Servant are Diſparates, notwithſtanding Servant is not only oppoſed to Freeman, but alſo to Maſter; becauſe the Genus of Oppoſition in both is not the ſame: For Servant and Maſter are Relatives, whilſt Freeman and Servant are Contraries, which leads us to the next Axiom, viz. That,
Ax. 8. Contraries are two abſolute things the fartheſt diſtant under the ſame Genus.
1. §. Ariſtotle Cap. 6. of the Categ. defines Contraries in this manner, viz. to be thoſe things which are the fartheſt diſtant under the ſame Genus: But that Definition ſeems to be leſs full; becauſe it ſuits alſo with Diſparates, and thoſe that are Relatively oppoſed.
2. §. Contraries are two ſo ſaid, becauſe in this reſpect they may differ from Diſparates which are more than two; or at leaſt, nothing hinders but that they may be ſo. Abſolute, in that they differ from ſuch as are Relatively oppoſed. It is added under the ſame Genus, to wit, either the next, as Whiteneſs and Blackneſs, under Colour; or remote, as Juſtice and Injuſtice, under Habit. In that they are diſtinguiſhed from Contradictings, and thoſe which are privatively oppoſed.
3. §. Nor does it hinder, which Ariſiotle ſays Cap. 11. of the Categ. that Good and Bad, which are Contraries, are not under the ſame Genus, but Genus's themſelves: For Ariſtotle ſeems to ſay that out of the Pythagorean Opinion, who conſtituted two Series's or Orders of things, one good, tho other bad, as Ariſtotle himſelf teſtifies, Book 1. of his Metaph. Cap. 5. For ſince Good and Evil are to be found in all Categories, as Ens, as is taught Book 1. of the Ethicks, Cap. 4. they cannot be chief Genus's. To which I add, that in Metaphyſicks, where Good is conſidered as a common Affection of a thing, Evil is not contrary to it; but privatively oppoſed. In Ethicks Good and Evil indeed are Contraries, but contain'd under the ſame Genus, to wit, either Habit or Moral Action, which Ariſtotle uſes to call Practice or foreign. See Ammonius and Simplicius upon the 11th Cap. of the Categories.
4. §. There is farther added moſt diſtant, viz. either as to Form or Place: For ſo the Philoſopher diſtinguiſhes Contrariety, Book 5. of the Phyſicks, Cap. 2. and Book 2. of the Meteors, Cap. 6. as, that one is in Quality, which he calls Contrariety according to Form; the other in Ubi, or where; which he calls Contrariety according to Place: Contraries in Quality are Black and White, Virtue and Vice, ſtreight and crooked, Servant and Free. In Place, which in a Sphere or Circle are Diametrically oppoſed, as the Artick and Antartick Poles, &c. Hitherto alſo is to be referred Contrariety of Motions, which is ſituate in the contrary Habitude of Terms: So that the Term to which, of one Motion, is the Term from which, of the other; and ſo on the Contrary. Thomas calls it a Contrariety of Acceſs and Receſs: So Generation and Corruption, Accretion and Diminution, Calefaction and Frigefaction, Aſcent and Deſcent, are Contraries, &c. And therefore when in the Book of the Categ. the Philoſopher includes Contrariety amongſt the Qualities, and denies it to have Place in Subſtance and Quantity, he is to be eſteemed to take the Word in a very ſtrict Senſe; and ſo we proceed to the following Axiom, viz. That,
Ax. 9. Contraries mutually deſtroy each other, and the one is always remitted by the Contagion of the other.
1. §. So aſſerts Ariſtotle Book 2. of the Heavens, Cap. 3. For Example: When Water is made hot, as much Cold decedes from it as is impreſs'd upon it of Heat from elſewhere, and if a Contrary, is ſometimes intended by a Contrary by Antipariſtaſis, that happens only by Accident.
Ax. 10. Contraries cannot be together in the ſame ſingular Subject.
Ax. 11. They are converſant, yet, about the ſame, either in Species or Genus.
1. §. Theſe Theorems are deliver'd Cap. 11. of the Categ. and the Senſe of them is manifeſt enough. For Example: The ſame Perſon cannot at the ſame time be juſt and unjuſt, ſick and in Health, nor any thing even and uneven, cold and hot; Yet Juſtice and Injuſtice are in the Soul of Man: Sickneſs and Health in the Body of the Animal; Even and Uneven in Number, and Cold and Heat in the Elementary Body, &c.
Ax. 12. Contraries are either Mediate or Immediate.
Ax. 13. Mediate are thoſe between which a Medium, Partaker of both of them is interjected.
Ax. 14. Immediate, between which nothing of a Medium of that Nature is interjected.
1. §. The Medium conſider'd in Oppoſition to paſs by other Acceptations is two-fold; one of Form, or Participation, the other of Subject or Negation. The Medium of Form, or Participation that is ſaid to be, which is a Partaker of both Extremes: So Warmth is a Medium between Heat and Cold, Red between Black and White. The Medium of the Subject or Negation is ſaid to be that of which both Extremes are denied: So a Spirit is ſaid to be a Medium between hot and cold, great and ſmall. This Diviſion is to be underſtood of the Medium of Participation: For ſome Contraries have a Medium of this Nature; as White and Black, Heat and Cold; and ſome not; as even and uneven, ſtreight and crooked. The Medium of Negation is to be found in all Oppoſitions excepting Contradictings: Sometimes it alſo hapens that a Medium of Participation, wanting a proper Word, is ſignified by the Negation of its Extreme.
2. §. Of Contraries Immediate there is a Neceſſity that one of them ſhould be in a Capacious Subject. So of Neceſſity every Number muſt be even or odd. Of Mediates, no Neceſſity for either of them; becauſe the Medium it ſelf may occupy the Subject: For it is not neceſſary that a Body ſhould be Black or White; becauſe it may be Red or Green. If yet one of the Mediates be proper and natural to the Subject, that, of Neceſſity muſt be in the Subject; and ſo 'tis neceſſary that the Fire ſhould be hot, &c.
Ax. 15. Relatively oppoſed, are thoſe which, that which they are, are ſaid to be of the Oppoſites, or in any other manner are referred to them.
1. §. Things Related may be conſider'd two ways; either as given to divers things; and ſo they conſtitute each the other: Or, as to the ſame, and ſo they mutually deſtroy each other, and are really Oppoſites; eſpecially if of a diverſe Name. For Example: Suppoſing the Father, you muſt ſuppoſe alſo the Son: But he who is the Father of any Perſon cannot be alſo the Son of the ſame Perſon, &c. In Relateds of the ſame Name, the Oppoſition does not ſo well appear; becauſe of the Identity of the Name.
Ax. 16. Privatively oppoſed are, Habit and its Privation.
1. §. Privation ſometimes ſignifies the Abſence of the Form which may be introduc'd upon the Subject: So the Privation of the Soul may be ſaid to be in the Seed; of Heat, in cold Water: Sometimes the Abſence of the Form, which ought to be in the Subject; that is, a Phyſical Privation; and is number'd amongſt the Principles of Generation; this a Logical, and is ſignified in this Place: But whereas there are many Genus's of things which are to be underſtood in this Place under the Name of Habit; to wit, Natural Power, Habit ſtrictly ſo called, Patible Quality, Form, Operation, Habit in the tenth Category, &c. and that, I ſay, in a Word, every Accident that may be ſeparated from the Subject; ſo alſo Logical Privation is as various, viz. Privation of natural Power, as Blindneſs; of Habit ſtrictly ſo called as Ignorance; Patible Quality, as Darkneſs; Form, as Deformity; ſuch as was in the Chaos; of Operation, as Sleep, Reſt; Habit in the tenth Category, as Nakedneſs, &c. Sight therefore and Blindneſs, Knowledge and Ignorance, Light and Darkneſs, Watchings and Sleep, Motion and Reſt, to be cloathed, and to be naked, are privatively oppoſed, &c.
2. §. Privation and Habit are converſant about the ſame Subject, which Subject muſt be capable of a Habit; that is, ſuch in which a Habit ought to be by Nature, and when it ought to be. Therefore Privation cannot be attributed to any Subject; but that only, which by its own Nature and the time fixed and appointed by Nature, is apt to receive an oppoſite Habit. And therefore a Stone cannot be ſaid to be blind; becauſe by its own Nature it is unapt to ſee; nor an Infant newly born to be Toothleſs; becauſe it cannot have Teeth from its Nativity, or Birth; and this brings us to reflect upon the next Axiom, viz. That,
Ax. 17. From Privation to Habit there can be no Regreſs.
1. §. In Privation and Habit, ſays Ariſtotle, there can be no reciprocal Change amongſt themſelves: For altho' there may be a Mutation from Habit to Privation, yet from Privation to Habit there cannot be; but this muſt be underſtood of Privation of natural Power, which is the greateſt Privation: For the Blind cannot Naturally recover their loſt Sight: But from a Privation of thoſe other things recited above, a Regreſs is frequently given.
Ax. 18. Contradictings are Ens, and non Ens oppoſed.
1. §. As a Man, not a Man; White, not White; to ſee, and not to ſee, &c. Contradictings are ſaid to be oppoſed as Affirmation and Negation; not that they are Enunciations, but that a Subject being added, they conſtitute them in Affirmation and Negation, Pugnant or Fighting; as Socrates is a Man, Socrates is not a Man; Socrates is White, Socrates is not White, &c. Farther,
Ax. 19. A Contradiction has no Medium; that is,
1. §. Whether of Negation or Participation.: For to Being and no Being, Nothing is in common. Hitherto belongs that Definition of Contradictions, which is extant Book 1. of the Poſt. viz. That Contradiction is an Oppoſition, which, by it ſelf wants a Medium, &c.
Ax. 20. A Contradiction is the greateſt of Oppoſitions, and the firſt and Meaſure of the reſt.
1. §. Greateſt, becauſe it wants a Medium: Firſt becauſe it pre-ſuppoſes no other: Meaſures the reſt, becauſe the firſt in every Genus, is always the Meaſure of the reſt. For Example: White and Black, to ſee and to be blind, are therefore truly Oppoſites; becauſe White is not Black, and to ſee, not to be blind, &c.
2. §. 'Tis farther to be noted, that of Contradictions the one may be expreſſed whilſt the other is implied. An Expreſs is then when one of the Extremes is finite, and the other Infinite; as, Man, not Man. Implyed, when, without a Particle of Negation, the one Extreme is overturned by the other; Vulgarly called a Contradiction in the Adject, or Oppoſed in Oppoſed; as for Inſtance, if a Man ſhould ſya an Unbloody Sacrifice, one body, as in many Places or every where, &c.