The World Bewitched, Chapter 2
CHAP. II. That the opinions of the Heathens, concerning God, and Spirits, are to be found in Greek and Latin Authors.
Sect. 1. THat we may the better ſearch into the bottom of this matter, it will not methinks, prove unſerviceable. Firſt, to examine the various Opinions of other Nations, and then thoſe that are receiv'd amongſt us. As to Foreign Nations, we have to conſider thoſe that are not Chriſtians, and ſuch Chriſtians, as may be called Spurious. The Firſt are the Heathens, who never worſhiped one true God, or the Mahometans, who keep as the mean betwixt them and us; or the Jews, who Worſhip one God only. The others are Chriſtians, who are extreamly corrupted, and plung'd into ſtrange Errors, both as to the belief, and to their Worſhip, ſuch as thoſe of the Roman Communion. After we have obſerv'd the diſpoſition of all theſe Nations, ſhe ſhall more eaſily examine what is believed and practiſed amongſt us. As to the Heathens, we muſt diſtinguiſh betwixt the Cuſtoms that were formerly in uſe in thoſe Countries, in which Chriſtianity is at preſent eſtabliſh'd; and betwixt thoſe that are ſtill practiſed amongſt thoſe Nations, that have not yet been illuminated with the light of the Goſpel. We ſhall now proceed in that order.
Sect. 2. Europe, which is now moſt or all Chriſtians, and thoſe parts of Aſia and Africa, which are in the Turks poſſeſſion, and of which very near one half profeſſes the Chriſtian Faith, were formerly buryed under the frightful Darkneſs of Paganiſm, as are ſtill moſt or all the reſt of the World. Formerly the Greeks, who inhabited thoſe Countries, that are in the Grand Seignior's Dominions, were the moſt famous People in the World, by reaſon of their Learning and Religious Worſhip. Next to them came the Romans, and moſt of the Nations, who ſtill keep Communion with the Pope of Rome. For proportionably as the Romans extended the limits of their Empire, ſo they ſubjected the conquer'd Nations, to the Worſhip of their Gods, and to their Religion, ſo that their Doctrine and Worſhip ſpread every where, and drew to themſelves an Univerſal Awe and Veneration. From them therefore we muſt know the Cuſtoms of our Forefathers in the time of Heatheniſm; but we cannot accurately diſcover what was their Belief concerning Spirits, unleſs we know, at leaſt in general, their Opinions and Practices, concerning God and inferiour Deities,
Sect. 3. But the great difference and Diviſions, that were amongſt the Heathens themſelves upon this Account, leave us extreamly in the Dark, as to the Opinions that are to be aſcribed to them. However, we may agree upon this, viz. to take that ſtupendous number of differencies for an Uniformity; ſo that it may he affirmed, that in all Ages, the Pagans have Unanimouſly believed, that there is but one Sovereign God, the Firſt Univerſal cauſe of all things; ſince the Firſt Doctors of their moſt famous Schools, and the heads of their principal Sects, have generally taught this Doctrine to their Diſciples. The Opinion of Pythagoras, that Old Father of the Pagan Religion, may be ſeen in Lactantius, who writing againſt the Heathens, did doubtleſs not intend to ſpare them; however he ſays, that Pythagoras owned one God, an immaterial Spirit diffuſed and extended through all Nature, who gives Life and Senſe to all beings. Plato, who has deſerved the name of Wiſe, by all the ſucceeding Ages, agrees with him, as to this point, as appears by his diſcourſe to the Athenians, in his four Books of the Laws. Gentlemen, ſays he, God in whom, according to the Ancient Teſtimonies, is the beginning, the middle, and the end of all things, penetrates every where, &c. And Ariſtotle, his great Diſciple, who for Two Thouſand Years, has been eſteemed the Prince of Philoſophers, plainly ſayes in his Firſt Book of Metaphyſicks, Chap. the 7th. that God is Eternal and perfectly good, ſo that the Eternal and Infinite Life conſiſts in him. From this capital point they infer this other Belief, that the good and evil, which befal Men, proceed from the Firſt and Univerſal Deity, as Plato more largely explains in the forementioned place. Equity, ſays he, Eternally attends him, which is the Avenger of thoſe that forſake the Law of God, but happy is he, who ſticks to it, and follows it conſtantly.
Sect. 4. But how advantageouſly ſoever they may ſpeak of the ſupream Deity, it nevertheleſs appears, that they do not aſcribe to him Independency, nor the immediate direction of all things; ſince they divided the Government of the World betwixt ſeveral Gods, to each of whom they aſſigned his particular ſhare. 'Tis very probable that the Caldees and Perſians, obſerving how Human affairs were often here below obnoxious to conſiderable changes, which proceeded from Heaven, took occaſion from thence, to contrive two ſupream Deities, proceeding from that Firſt being; one of whom they called Oromasdes, and gave him the direction of Heaven; to the other, named Arimanius, they aſcribed that of the Earth. The Romans afterwards gave them the Greek names, viz. to the former that of Jupiter, and to the latter, that of Pluto, whom they at Firſt look't upon as the God of the Earth. And becauſe all the wiſe held for a certain Truth, that the Heavens ſurpaſs the Earth in perfection, they placed the ſupream Deity in Heaven, and the other Gods under it, each according to his Dignity: And as they conceived that the Soveraign God could never ceaſe from being good, ſo Jupiter, who had the Empire of the Heavens, was in great credit amongſt them; but Pluto, the God of Hell, obtain'd but an ill name.
Sect. 5. It is here, methinks, the proper place to diſtinguiſh the Doctrines of the Pagans into ſuch as had either Religion, or Nature, for their object. In the latter, they enquired after the Firſt and Second Cauſes of all things, of their Motion and Changes, without any reference to Religion. Thus came upon the Stage Plato, with his Idea's, and Ariſtotle with his Intelligencies, Plato called Idea's the principles that flow from the Divine Nature, that ſubſiſts with him, and by which all things ſubſiſt; each of them being as an Engraven Image of him, from whom they all proceed; ſo that they all partake of the Nature of their Original, and are ſuch as the principal, from whence they flow. When I confer the ſentiment of Pythagoras contained in the words of Socrates, related in the Parmenis, with what Plutarch ſayes in his Firſt Book, Chap. the 10th, of the Opinions of Philoſophers; and Laertius in the Life of the ſame Pythagoras, as alſo Cicero, in the Firſt Book of the Tuſculan Queſtions. Fifty Eight, wherein he explains the meaning of that Philoſopher, it ſeems to me, that nothing can be better nor more plainly expreſſed, concerning this ſubject. As for Ariſtotle his Opinion was that there are ſubſtances diſtinct and ſeparate from matter, who put the Heavens into Motions, ſuppoſing Heaven it ſelf foreign, a Body in a continual and reſtleſs motion; that the Stars are of an Eternal Nature, and that wh…t moveth, muſt be more durable and precede that which is moved. Thence he inferr'd, that there are as many permanent and immoveable ſubſtances. This is what he teaches in his Metaphyſicks Book the 14th. cap. 18. And what is called by his Latin Interpreters, Intelligencies.
Sect. 6. But when they proceed to Religion, there ariſe ſtill among them more conſiderable differencies, which may be plainly perceived in the Book of Plutarch, Entituled, The Opinions of Philoſophers, and elſewhere in the ſame Author, as alſo in the Book; which Apuleius, a Platoniſt, more Ancient than Plutarch, has written of the Life of Socrates. The ſum of what he ſays, comes to this; that the Deitie is divided into Four, as into ſome Degrees that deſcend from high to low, and that the three laſt Degrees are again ſubdivided into ſeveral others, which they call foreign, and foreign, Gods, Demons and Heroes. Plato, ſayes Apuleius, has divided the whole Nature into three, with relation to Spirits in particular, believing that there are Gods, Superior, Middle, and Inferior. Of which Three ſorts of Gods, it is convenient to ſay ſomthing.
Sect. 7. As to the Superior or Celeſtial Gods, he ſayes, that their habitation is in Heaven, that they are Immaterial and Eternal of their own Nature; but that there are ſome, which are in ſome ſort viſible in the Stars, though others cannot be perceived by corporal Eyes, but only by thoſe of the Underſtanding. After he has diſtinguiſhed thoſe Deities into Sexes. like Mankind, that is, into Gods and Goddeſſes; he mentions theſe 12, viz. Jupiter, Apollo, Vulcan, Mars, Neptune, Mercury, who are Six Gods, Juno, Diana, Venus, Ceres, Veſta, Minerva, who are as many Goddeſſes. The dignity of theſe Celeſtial Gods, notwithſtanding the liberty which the Poets often took to contrive other Accounts of them, 'twas eſteem'd too high, that it ſhould allow them to deſcend and converſe with Men, though they govern'd their affairs, each in his Jurisdiction. But the ſame Plato believes, the Stars are but improperly called Gods, and only in reference to the Divine and Immutable conduct, that is obſervable in them. The names of the fixed Stars, which are reckon'd amongſt the viſible Gods, are contain'd in this Verſe.
Arcturum, pluviaſque Hyadas, geminosque Triones —
But leaving thoſe Gods to Plato, of whoſe making they were, the Stars, which are called by Ignorance Planets, or erring Stars, were alſo accounted amongſt the Gods; the Sun was called Apollo, and the Moon Diana, to which theſe Five were joyned, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, called alſo the Morning and Evening Star, and Mercury, though they appear but ordinary Stars. Another ſource of the Pagan Errors in their Divinity, is the Conformity, betwixt the name of ſome Stars, and thoſe of their inviſible Gods, they believed, that there were Deities in the Stars, who acted by them, or that the Stars were Gods; who having life in themſelves, communicated it to other Creatures, as it was believed by Alomen, whoſe Opinion is related in Clemens Alexandrinus.
Sect. 8. We may ſtill perceive ſome Remains of that Opinion in the names of the Days of the Week, in the Engliſh, French, and Dutch Tongues, as well as in Latin, for they ſtill name by one of the Seven Planets that Day, on which they believe them to have a particular Influence. As Lunae Dies, Lundi, Munday, Maanday; Martis Dies, Mardi, Duigsday, an Abbreviation of Dyſſenday, which is ſtill in uſe in Zealand, and Brabant. Mercury Dies, Mecred, Wedneſday, Woonſdag, from Wodenſday, the Day of Woden, the name of Mercury amongſt the Ancient Germans and Dutch, becauſe he was the God of Merchants, and the Meſſenger of the Gods; Jovis Dies, Jeudi, Thurſday, Donderdag, becauſe Jupiter was eſteem'd the God of Thunder; Veneris Dies, Vandredi, Friday, Vrydag, from Freda, the Ancient name of Venus in the Dutch and Saxon Tongue; whence it comes, that the Friſons called that Day Freed, and whence undoubtedly comes the Dutch word Vryen, to Court a Woman. Saturni Dies, Samedi, Saturday, Saterdag. Solis Dies, Sunday, Sondag, but in the French Tongue, it has loſt it's Ancient name, in remembrance of the Reſurrection of our Lord, and is called Dimanche from Dies Dominica.
Sect. 9. Let us proceed from the Gods to the Demons, or Spirits of a meaner Order. Thales of Milet taught, if we believe Plutarch, foreign, that the World is full of Spirits, namely, the Air, which they inhabit, and the Earth in which they converſe amongſt Men; the Greek word foreign, comes from foreign, I know, as ſignifying one that is very Learned, becauſe they believed that thoſe Demons knew whatever is important to Men, either for their Happineſs or Miſery, and that they were as the Mediators of Men towards the Gods. And 'tis obſervable, that foreign likewiſe ſignifies to Mediate, ſo that the Demons import ſo much as Mediators. And therefore they have alſo been called foreign, the Mediators and Directors of Men, and have been placed according to the Opinions of the Heathens, betwixt the Heavens and the Earth, viz. in the Air, and conſequently betwixt the Gods and Men.
Sect. 10. Though the Opinions were divided, as to their Nature, yet they agreed in theſe principal points, that they were Spirits, that they were Mortal, and however, that they were no Gods, as Plato writes in his Timoeus, which explaining more at large in his Convivium, he ſays, that the Demons have a Nature which is the Mene betwixt God and Men, foreign. But what virtue have they? That of explaining and declaring to Men, what things belong to the Gods, which are their Commands, and how Sacrifices muſt be performed; As alſo, that of offering to the Gods, what comes from Men, viz. their Prayers and Sacrifices, ſo that they being in the middle, comprehend the Nature of both, as binding and uniting the whole together.
Sect. 12. As to their Adminiſtration, Plato explains it thus. From them come to us Predictions, Auguries, the worſhip of Sacrifices, Conjurations, Orations, and the whole Art of Magick. The Deitie meddles not with Men, but thoſe Spirits are the Directors of all the communication and converſe of the Gods with us, either wakeing or ſleeping. The Demons therefore being by their Nature Mediators, betwixt the Gods and Men, and being beſides, Spirits, and almoſt Gods, could not be better called, then Spirits of a middle Order, in relation to their Nature; or Mediating Gods, in reference to their Functions, in how great conſideration thoſe Spirits were, and what was the Sentiment of the Antients concerning them, may be learned from St. Chryſoſtome, Tom. 6. Leſſ. 66. Entituled, Againſt thoſe that ſay, that the Demons direct the Affairs of Men.
Sect. 12. But, what will be moſt uſeful to obſerve, was, that there were Demons of a Superiour, and others of an Inferior Order; and that ſome were eſteemed Good, and others Wicked foreign, Good and favourable; whereas the other were foreign, Evil Spirits, or by a more particular explication of their Qualities, foreign, Wicked, dangerous, Enemies, Cruel. However, theſe Demons, either good or bad, were not believed of all Nations, to be of the ſame Dignity. There were ſome, amongſt whom, foreign, imported as much as Deity, and foreign, Divine, even in Plato, the Soveraign God is called, foreign, the greateſt Demon. However the general uſe was to diſtinguiſh the Gods from the Demons, as has been already obſerved, and as Aeſchines expreſſes it in his Cleſias, O Earth, Gods, Demons, and Men, whoever ye be, that deſire to know the Truth! and therefore Plato, in the place already quoted, may rightly ſay, foreign, that thoſe learned and middle Spirits, are in great numbers and ſeveral kinds. But 'tis not neceſſary to ſpeak more of it, for perhaps it would only induce us into ſeveral errors; there is ſo much uncertainty in Plato, and others that have written upon it, they are ſo much oppoſed againſt one another, and even to themſelves.
Sect. 13. As to the Heroes, they were extraordinary Men, and ſo far above the vulgar, that every where, eſpecially amongſt the Romans, they uſed to conſecrate and deifie them, after their Death, which was called foreign, a Canonization. Herodian in his Fourth Book, Chap 2. makes a particular Deſcription of that Ceremony, with all the Circumſtances of it, on occaſion of the Death of the Emperor Severus. Beſides we generally find in the writing of the Ancients, that they paraell'd them with the Demons; Plutarch, relates in his Opinions of the Philoſophers, Chap. 8. Book Firſt, That Thales, Plato, and the Stoicks believ'd, that the Demons were Spiritual ſubſtances, and that the Heroes were Souls ſeparated from the Body, which were good or bad, as Men had been Virtuous or Vitious, this was eſpecially the Doctrine of Pythagoras who in all things that relate to Religion has had more Diſciples then any of the Ancient Heathens, and is yet the moſt followed by thoſe that are not Chriſtians. He teaches that thoſe Demons and Heroes brought in Dreams, Diſeaſes, and Cure to Men, and even to Cattle, and labouring Beaſts; according to the Teſtimony of Diogenes Laertius, confirm'd by Plato, and not contradicted by Ariſtotle.
Sect 14. Apuleius, in the Book formerly quoted, more particularly demonſtrates, that the powers, which put the natural paſſions of Men into motion, which govern them, and Lord it over them, as alſo the Souls ſeparated from the Body, are called Gods, and Demons, or Spirits; that the Soul born with the Body, dies not however with it; and that ſhe bears the name of Genius, when they are ſeparated from each other. This meaning cannot, methinks, be better expreſs'd, than by naming thoſe Souls, Aſſociated Spirits, or Spirits peculiar to one ſubject, ſince every Man has one within himſelf. The others, that is thoſe that are ſeparated from the Body, or the Souls of the Deceaſed, are commonly called Manes, as though remaining, becauſe they remain of …ſt after the Body; for Which reaſon, I ſhall name them, Surviving Spirits. However, as to the Latin word, it ſeems rather to be derived from Manis, an Ancient obſolete Term, which ſignifies fine and good; as immanis imports, as much as Ʋgly and Cruel; becauſe the Manes were ordinarily taken for Benevolent Spirits.
Sect. 15. Some of this laſt ſort remained in the Houſe of the deceaſed, to watch over his Succeſſors, and were called Lares, or Domeſtick Gods; but the others err'd at random, and as Exiles, according as they had deſerved by their wicked Life: They could cauſe but vain Fears to virtuous Perſons, but to the vitious a juſt Terrour, and all ſorts of Pains. They were called Lares, Night Phantaſms, and Spectra. Diogenes writes, that moſt of thoſe things were taught in the School, of Plato, as it ſtill appears by his Book, Entituled, Phoedo. They had alſo the name of Lemures, which is ſuppoſed to come from Remures, and this from Remus, Brother to Romulus, who frightfully imagined to ſee the Ghoſt of his Brother Remus, after he had killed him. If thoſe Narrations were true, ſuch Spirits might be called terrifying Spirits. Ovid in the Fifth Book of the Faſti plainly ſays what muſt be underſtood by that Name.
Mox etiam Lemures animas dixere ſilentum.
The Soul of the Dead had the Name of Lemures.
Sect. 16. The Lares, or perhaps the Geniues are called by Macrobius in his Third Book of the Saturnalia, Chap. 4. Penates, that is, Born together, Quaſi penes nos natos: For, as that Author purſues, 'tis by them that we breath, by them that we have our Body, and by them that our Soul ſubſiſts: But 'tis, better to call them Gods, and Governors of Countries, to diſtinguiſh them from the Lares, who were particular to each Family, as they were both diſtinguiſhed from the Geniuſes, and look'd upon as taking care of the exteriour of Man, as the Geniuſes did of the interior. However it muſt be confeſs'd, that there is but Confuſion and Darkneſs to be met with in the Books of the Heathens, concerning thoſe Names, and their pretended Signification, they having not well known themſelves what they Worſhipped, as Gods, or as Spirits; neither need we take much trouble in unravelling what they themſelves knew not; ſince the memory, both of them, and of their Daemons, is long ſince extinguiſhed upon Earth; This being the Lot of the Heathens, and of their Gods, Jeremiah, cap. 10.
Sect. 17. Whether this laſt ſort of Gods, or Spirits, were called Genii, Manes, Penates, or Lemures, it plainly appears that they believed the Immortality of the Soul; which Opinion being confounded with that of Daemons, gave occaſion to contrive thoſe ſorts of Spirits. Plato in his Book Of the Soul, Entituled Phaedo, induces Socrates, ſpeaking near his Death in theſe Words. Above all, the Soul muſt be immortal, and unperiſhable, and conſequently it muſt go to live, foreign, in inviſible places; or, as others pretend to infer from the Etymology of the Word, in agreeable Places. Marcilius Ficinus has Tranſlated it in Latin, apud Manes, by the ſurviving Spirits, as I have named them above; but a little after he Translates, apud Inferos, in the Subterraneous Places: which proceed from that they placed the Soul of the Deceaſed under the Earth. Cicero, in the firſt Book of the Tuſculan Queſtions, Sect. 26. ſhows both in theſe Words. We believe, that the Souls ſurvive becauſe all our Reaſonings lead us to that Opinion. Reaſon ought alſo to teach us where they are; whence Ignorance has taken occaſion to invent ſubterraneous places, becauſe Bodies being put into the Earth, and cover'd, with Earth, (humo, whence comes humari to be Buried) thereof it has been believed, that the Dead ſtill live under the Earth. Now foreign is the ſame word which the Interpreters of the New Teſtament ſometimes Tranſlate by that of Hell, ſometimes by that of Grave; none of which agrees with the Senſe of Socrates, or that of Plato: For at the end of the forementioned Book, Socrates derides Crito, who asked him how he would be buried. He believes, ſays he, That I am that dead Body which he ſhall ſee anon; ſignifying, that they might indeed Bury his Dead Body, but as to him, that is, his Soul, he ſhould paſs, foreign, to the aſſur'd Felicity of the Bleſſed: which very much differs from the Grave or Hell. And therefore 'tis certain, that Socrates, who ſpake ſo, believed the Soul to be Immortal, and that Plato, who writ his Words, was of the ſame perſuaſion.
Sect. 18. But there were others, who tho' they were of the ſame opinion, yet having not acquired ſo much inſight into the State of Souls ſeparated from their Bodies, invented Tranſmigrations and Purifications. The Druids, ſo famous amongſt the Ancient Gauls, held together the foreign, or Tranſmigration of Souls, with their Immortality; For they unanimouſly taught, according to the Teſtimony of Caeſar, Book 8. Chap. 18. Non interire animas ſed ab aliis poſt mortem tranſire ad alios: Souls die not, but that after Death they paſs from one to another. The antient Egyptians were of the ſame Opinion, and Herodotus writes, that they were the firſt who taught the Immortality of the Soul: For, ſays he, their ſentiment is, that the Soul being deprived of the Body, paſſes into another Body, which is then born; and after ſhe has thus walked through all ſorts of Bodies upon Earth, in the Sea, and in the Air, ſhe at laſt returns into a human Body. Thence it was that Pythagoras had his Doctrine, which he brought over into Greece, whence it paſſed into Italy. Lactantius explains the Opinions of that Philiſopher in his Seventh Book de Proemio, Chap. 8. In theſe words; Pythagoras as fooliſhly aſſerted, that the Souls paſſed into other Bodies, from the Bodies of Men into thoſe of Beaſts, and from thoſe of Beaſts into thoſe of Men again, and that his own had formerly been that of Euphorbius. Plato and ſeveral others have partly followed him, which we ſhall be obliged frequently to mention hereafter.
Sect. 19. But Socrates, as Plato relates in the forementioned Treatiſe, which contains his laſt Words, leads the Souls to ſome places, where they ſhall be Bleſſed or Tormented, without Bodies: He ſends thoſe who ſhall have done Good into the Upper and Aetherial Regions, where he believes the moſt pure part of this Orb to be, and where the Soul ſhall Eternally live without the Body, in an unexpreſſible Felicity. Whereas he condemns thoſe of the Wicked to the Tartarus, which is a deep and frightful Abyſs, where they ſhall be puniſh'd according to their Deſerts. From that Gulf of Torments he draws four Rivers, to which he gives as many Names, very fit to expreſs his Notion, viz. Oceanus, a precipitate Torrent; Acheron, a Torrent of Torments; Pyriphlegeton, Conflagration; and Cocytus, Bemoaning. Here Sinners, who have not been altogether incorrigible, are to be purged with many Pains and Vexations, more or leſs, longer or ſhorter, according to their Deſerts. There you have the original of Purgatory, or of that purging Fire, ſtill believed by the Roman Church. However, Socrates gives out that Narration but for a Chimaera: For before he begins it he calls it, foreign, a pretty Fable worth hearing; and at the end he ſays: But no Man of Senſe ought to maintain that Opinion ſo, as I have related, though I eſteem it rational and juſt, to ſhow that it goes very near ſo, in reference to our Souls, and their Habitations; ſince it plainly appears that the Soul is immortal. Theſe Words of a Dying Man, who exhorts, thoſe that were preſent to be at all times ready for Death, perſuade me more and more of what I have already ſaid, that the Heathens expreſs'd themſelves variouſly upon theſe Matters; and that they ſpeak otherwiſe, when they conſider them in reference to Religion; than when they conceive them in relation to the enquiry after Natural things; but at the ſame time they ſhow, that they were not very certain of what they ſaid, nor of What they believed.