The Art of Logic, Book 3 · Part 7
A Comparative Syllogism.
Seeing every Syllogism is first absolute; As when we ask whether this be that or not: or else secondly Comparative, as when we ask whether this be more or lesse then that; here shall be added Canons of a Comparative Syllogism.
The generall Canons hereof are two.
The 1 For the foreknowledge of the conclusion. 2 The other to finde the Mean.
1 The conclusion of a Comparative Syllogism being contingent, and for the most part taken confusedly, needeth therefore diligent distinction and limitation: As it one ask, whether this or that be better; We must distinguish between better simply and absolutely, foreign, and better in respect, and after a sort, foreign, and foreign, rather to be chosen in respect of time and place: So marriage is simply better than a single life, because of propagation, Gen. 2. Yet single life is rather to be chosen in time of persecution, 1 Cor. 7.
2 The mean term of a comparative Syllogism, is hardly found by the places of reall invention; because the attribute is most common, and almost Notional, not reall; therefore this is here handled after a Notional Syllogism.
The speciall Canons pertain either to the question as it is asked indefinitely, whether this be rather then that? or unto the question as it is asked, whether this be better then that, or worse?
1 That which is such by Nature, is rather such then that which is not such by Nature; as, flowers are fairer then garments; For, they have a naturall beauty, these but an artificiall.
2 That which maketh an other such, is rather such then that which maketh not; and if both do make, that which rather maketh, is rather such; As Fire is hotter then Water; for it maketh the Water such.
The Canons pertaining to a conclusion, better or not better, are these.
1 That which is more lasting and constant, is better than that which is lesse lasting; So 1 Cor. 13. Love is better than faith; For love endureth alwayes.
2 That which is of it self good, is better than that which is good by another, and by accident; So, To live is better than to eat, because we eat to live, and live not to eat.
3 Simply good, is better than that which is good for some; As marriage is better than single life; Study of learning better than Merchandize.
4 That is more excellent which is in the more worthy and honourable thing; As a Monarchy is the best Regiment; For God is a Monarch. It is better to give, than to receive; For God giveth onelyonly.
5 The end is better than the means unto the end; As better is health than the use of Physick; better is peace than Triumph.
6 That which is possible, is better than that which is impossible.
7 That is better which of it self is more fair and honourable.
8 That which is after, is oftentimes better than the former; to wit, if other things be like, &c. As, the later thoughts are better than the former.
9 Many good things are to be preserred before few.
10 That which effecteth many good things, is better than that which doth but few; So a Publike person is better than a Private.
11 That which is joyned with pleasure, is better than that which wanteth pleasure.
12 At what time a thing is more necessary, at that time it is more to be chosen; So comfort is better in sorrow than in prosperity.
13 That which is alwayes profitable, is better than that which is but sometime; So, Bread is better then all Phesants, Partridges, &c. For it is alwayes needfull.
14 That which hath all kindes of good, as honest, profitable, and pleasant, is better than that which is under but one kinde of good.
15 That is most to be shunned, which most hindereth things to be chosen.
16 They are most to be chosen, whose opposites are most to be shunned: So prudence is better than knowledge, because imprudence is more hurtfull than simple ignorance.
17 That is best which is most famous and notable.
18 Hard things are to be preferred before easie.
19 Things that we may communicate with others, specially with friends, are better than those which we may not; So learning is better than health, liberality than temperance.
20 That is best which is most proper; So Gods grace is better for his children, than worldly riches; For these are common with the wicked, that proper to the elect; To use reason, is better than to use sense; For that is proper to man, this is common with beasts. So wit is better than memory, which many fools have.
21 Of those which are under the same Genus or Species, that is better which hath its own proper vertue; So cold water is better than hot; Natural gesture than affected.
22 They which are of abundant, seem better than necessary things; As to have fair cloaths better than mean, to be a good Artizen better than a mean.
23 Things that cannot be given by men, are better than those that can: So wit is better than riches.
24 That is more to be chosen, the abundance whereof is more to be chosen than of any other thing.
25 Better is when a thing may be chosen without an other, than when without an other it is not to be chosen: As prudence is better than strength.
26 Of what things we deny the one, that the other may seem to be in it; that is the better which we would have seem to be in it: So many deny they took pains about a thing, that they may seem to be witty; therefore, wit is better than pains taking.
27 Such things as whose losse we take not more grievoussy, we are more blamed for, are more to be chosen, As children than riches, for we are more blamed if we be not sorry for losse of our children, than of our goods.
28 That which effecteth good, is better than that which doth not.
29 Conjugates follow mutually; therefore, if one be better, the other also shall be better; As the New Testament is better than the old; therefore, also a Minister of the New, is better than a Minister of the old.
30 That which pleaseth God, is better than that which pleaseth man.
31 That which we choose for it self, is better than that which we choose for glory.
And this much of a Notional Syllogism, and a comparative.
A Reall Syllogism, is, whose terms are Reall: that is, firstb Notions put without the mind.
And it is either
Contingent. a
Or Necessary. b
A Contingent is, whose contingent mean contingentlya disposed with the extreams, getteth a suspended and weak assent to the conclusion, and is called opinion.
A contingent mean, is that which is taken from a contingent place.
Contingent places be either
From the word. c
From the things. d
Places from the word, are either
1 From the definition of a Noun.
2 From the Conjugates.
A place from the definition of a Noun, hath three Canons.
1 To what the definition and notation of a noun is given, to that also the defined thing is given.
2 When the definition and Notation is larger than the thing defined and noted, the consequence is of force onelyonly negatively; As, it is not a sacred sign; therefore, not a Sacrament.
3 When the Notation is equall to the noted, the consequence is of force as well affirmatively as negatively: as, He foretels things to come, therefore he is a prophet: he is not a prophet, therefore he foretels not things to come.
A place of Conjugates hath three Canons.
1 One of the conjugates being put, another is put; and one taken away, another is taken away; as, Sin pleaseth not God: therefore not the sinner.
… That which is given to one of the Conjugates, is given also to the other: as, Religion is contemned, because the Religious are contemned. They that have one God, one Spirit, one Baptism, ought to have Unity amongst themselves: In the Trinity there is Unity, because the Father, the Son, and the holy Ghost are one.
A place from the things is either
Artificial. h
Inartificial. i
Artificial, is, which containeth Terms arguing of themselves.b
And it is either
First.
Or, rising from the first.
First, is, which containeth the first Terms.
And it is either
Inward. m
Outward. n
Inward, is, which containeth inward Terms: as, Of them cause and caused, of the subject and accident; of the whole and the part.
The place of the cause and caused hath five Canons.
1 The far-off efficient cause being put, it is probable that the effect should be put: as, The clouds gather, therefore it will rain.
2 The cause foreign and foreign being put, it is probable the effect is put, and contrariwise; also the effect being put, it is probable such a cause is put: as, He loves her, therefore he will marry her: He married her, therefore he loved her.
3 The Instruments being put, it is probable the effect is put; and contrary, the effect being put, it is probable the instruments are put, and contrary: as, He reads good books, therefore he will be learned: He useth proper physick; therefore he shall recover health, &c.
4 From the common matter put or taken away, or the matter whereof, to put or take away the mattered, and so on the contrary, is a contingent inference: as, In Germany is much wood, therefore they have many ships.
5 From a voluntary end to the means, and from these to the end, is a contingent inference: as, He studied hard, therefore he means to have the degree of a Doctor, &c.
The Canons of Subiect and Accident, Whole and Part, are four.
1 From the common accident being put unto the subject, is a contingent inference; as from the accident removed, to the removing of the subject: as, It is a black Bird, therefore a Crow: She loves the childe, therefore she is the mother of it.
2 From a common subject being put, to the putting of a common accident, and contrary, is a contingent infference: as, She is a Mother, therefore she loves the children: He is a Cretian, therefore a lyar.
3 The whole being put, it is probable this or that part is put: as, He is a man grown, therefore he hath a Beard.
4 Some integral part being put, it is probable the whole is put; and contrariwise: as, There is a foundation and walls, therefore a house.
Places of outward terms have five Canons.
b1 The adherent being put, it is probable that is put which it is wont to cleave to, and contrary; As he goeth brave; therefore he is rich.
2 The contingent object being put, it is probable that is put, about which it is busied, and contrary; as, There are many sick; therefore, many Physitians.
3 The circumstance of place or time being put, it is probable that is put which is wont to be therein, and contrary; as, It is eight of the clock in the morning; therefore, he is not drunk: He was not seen about the house in the night, therefore, he is a thief.
4 The antecedent being put, it is probable the consequent is put, and contrary; as, The Moon is pale; therefore, it will rain.
5 The con…ingent consequent being put, it is probable the antecedent was, and contrary; as, It raineth; therefore, the Moon was pale.
Places of terms arising from the first,
Are either
From Description.
From Comparison.
The place from description hath one Canon.
To whom the lesse principal description agreeth, it is probable that the described agreeth, or agreeth not thereto; as, It is not a Bush bigger then a Biamble, with strong twigs, and red Berries; therefore, it is not the Dogg-bryar.
The place from comparisons, the place is either from
Consentany a Comparison.
Dissentany b Comparison.
From consentany comparisons,a the place is either from,
Even.
Like.
The place from Even hath two Canons.
1. Even things agree ro Even; and what is given to the one, is given to the other of even things, and contrary: as Rom. 5. By one man salvation may be restored to the world; seeing by one man sin and death came on the world.
2. Whereto one of the even things agreeth or not, thereto it is probable the other also agreeth, or not; as, Christ had power to heal the Palsie-sick; therefore, he had power to forgive sins, Mat. 9.
The place from Like hath three Canons.
1 That which agreeth or not, to one of the like things, that also agreeth or not to the other: as, The rain returns not back to heaven, but watereth the earth; neither Gods Word returneth in vain.
2. To whom one of the Similies agreeth, or not▪ the other also agreeth, or not.
3. A similitude, or comparison allegericall, if it should have any force in arguing, it must needs have authority in the Scriptures, and application Ministred by the Holy Ghost.
Of Proportionals, there is the same Judgement; and what is affirmed or denied of one by proportion, that is also of another: For as is the seed in the land, so is the word to the heart, but seed falling into good ground, bears good fruit; therefore doth Gods Word likewise in a good heart.
Neer to the place of Even and Like things, is the pla… from a singular thing and example, whose Canon is one.
Of Even▪ and Like things, there is the same Judgement; and that which agreeth, or not, to one singular of the same kinde, doth so to the o…her: as, Abraham was justified by faith, therefore also other men.
An example is either
True.
Feigned.
True, which hath indeed come to passe.
Feigned, which is devised for the teaching of children.
And it is
A Parable.
A Fable.
A Parable, is a feigned example, drawn from such actions of men, as may or are wont to be done.
A Fable, is a feigned example, drawn from beasts and other such things, whereunto humane actions do not agree.
From dissentany comparison the places are from
Uneven.
Unlike.b
Uneven, either greater or lesser.
The place from the greater hath two Canons.
1. If there be the greater, there will also be the lesser, and whereto the greater agreeth, the lesse doth also: as, God hath given us life, therefore he will give us food and rayment.
2. That which in the same proportion agreeth not to the greater, agreeth not also to the lesser: as, The Just is scarce saved, therefore much lesse the wicked.
The place from the Lesser, hath onelyonly this one Canon.
If the lesser be not, then the greater will not be; as, Of our selves we cannot think a good thought; much lesse, do a a good deed.
2. The place from Unlike, is either
Simple.
Compound.
Simple Unlikes agree to Unlikes; and whatsoever agreeth to one of the Unlikes, as it is unlike▪ agrees not to the other: as, Though beasts have all things common, tis unfitting men should.
For compound unlikes, they which are not proportionate, to them proportionals do not agree: as, A good shepherd deals not with his flock like an hireling: the hireling flies when the wolf comes; therefore the good shepherd doth not so. And thus much of places Artificial.
Inartificial, is a place which argueth not of it self, butb by the assumed force of an artificial place, and it is called the place of testimony.
Contingent testimony, is that which cometh from man as he is man.
The Canons of humane Testimony are 13.
1 Though no humane testimony as such, be of necessary truth, yet admitteth it certain degrees, and one is more strong, or weak than the other.
2 Proper, or ones own testimony of things, done or not done, especially in the worser part, if it be not wrung out of force, is counted for firm.
3 Publike testimonies of publike seals are firm.
4 Testimony of publike and long-lasting fame is also to be esteemed for meanly firm,
5 Old testimony is more worth than new.
6 Grammatical testimonies, to wit, which treat of the use, signification, quantity of words, syllables, &c. gathered out of the best Authors, are firm.
7 Testimonies Practick, that is Ethick, Politick, Legal, of honest, filthy, right, wrong, spoken of grave Authors, are firm.
8 Testimonies historical, of approved Historians, are firm.
9 Testimonies Theoretical of some great and received Author, alledged after reasons of a Theoretical conclusion, have great force.
10 Testimonie of many Wise men and Famous, is to be preferred before the testimony of one and an obscure man.
11 Testimony of a skilfull Artizen, is to be preferred before the testimony of another unskilfull, however famous otherwise.
12. Testimonies of ancient Fathers, if they be subordinate to the holy Scripture, have a force in proving Theologicall conclusions, but no proving humane, yet greater.
13. An Argument from humane Testimony negatively, is of no force.
And thus much of a contingent Syllogism.