The Art of Logic, Introduction – Book 1
The Art of Logick.
THe prime perfection and pleasure in this lifeGenerall rules to be foreknown of Logick. (second to that supernaturall one, Faith in Christ blessed for ever, and Sanctification through the Spirit) consists in mans conversing according to understanding and Reason: i. e. to understand, know and judge distinctly of things as they are in their Natures.
To the attainment of such a knowledge, three things are necessary.
1 The object or thing to be known, viz. Every thing in Nature.
2 A naturall faculty or power of understanding, which floweth from a reasonable Soul, and is innate to every man.
3 A certain disposition whereby this power is ordinately and regularly, that is in order, and without errour, led into Act. Now this is either,
1 Immediate, and by infusion of God, which is extraordinary and rare, and in these Ages of the Church promised to no person in particular.
2 Or it is acquired, and gotten by information and discipline, which is frequent and ordinary.
Now the disciplines disposing a mans understanding to the knowledge of things, are either.
1 Objective.
2 Directive.
1 Objective disciplines be such as handle things whichObjective disciplines. are in Nature as Objects of our understanding, which are principally four.
1 Theologie.
2 Jurisprudence.
3 Medicine.
4 Philosophy.
1 Divinity, called by the Greeks Theologie, which is the knowledge of God, and things Supernaturall, as they are Supernaturall, &c.
2 Jurisprudence, or Law, which takes in beside the special Laws of God and Nature, the Canon, Civil Laws, the Law of Nations, our Laws Common, Statute and Municipall, &c.
3 Medicine or Physick, both the Speculative and Practique.
4 Philosophy, which comprehends Metaphysicks, which considereth things as they are such, &c Also Physiques, or naturall Science; next of all Mathematicks, which contains Arithmetick, Geometry, Astronomy▪ Musick, Opticks, and last of all Ethicks, or Morals, containing Occonomicks and Politicks, under which again (beside History) is comprized Strategicks, called Martiall Discipline.
Directive Disciplines be such as handle not the thingsDirective discipline. themselves to be known, nor do they inform or perfect the understanding of man in those things, but they prepare only some operation of man, and with framed Rules and Instruments do guide and direct it.
Now the operations of man requiring and needing such artificial Rules, are chiefly two. The first is the understandingObserve. All faculties have two things in them, Matter, and Form, or somewhat not unlike; the Matter, Precepts; the Form, the order of the Precepts. The Matter every faculty hath of it self, as of its own nature. The Form is by Logick administred. or cogitation of things. The second the signification either by word or writing of those cogitations (as for the Disciplines Directive of the signification of mens thoughts, as Grammer, Rethorick, Poetry, they are beside our purpose to treate here) and that which thus directs the understanding or cogitations, is Logick only: to the consideration whereof, IThe AEquivocation of the word Logick. mean the Homonomy and AEquivocation of the Word of Term, we now come.
This word Logick
Hath divers significations: For first is meant by it the1 Naturall Logick. power or faculty of the understanding and reasoning, which is innate, and floweth from mans Essence or Nature.
2 It may be taken for a frame or constitution of Logical precepts, by this or that man written, called a systeme; which frame may be also taken for an Art, by a Metonomy of the Cause for the Effect, accepting Art not for an habit ingenerated in the mind by precepts and use, but for a collection of universal precepts, to operate in a determinate latitude and limit of End.
3 It may be accepted for a certain part of this whole frame or constitution, namely that which is of a Syllogism Contingent or Commune.
4 It may signifie an Act or Habit, begotten by precepts and use in the mind of the Artist; as when we say Peter is a good Logician: and this is the most proper signification of the word Logick, according to which we define it: So therefore
Logick is an Art of ordering and directing of mans †The thoughts of mans mind is nothing else but his reason or understanding wholly occupate about things.understandingThe first Definition of Logick. The second. in the knowledge things: Or secondly,
Logick is an Art that teacheth how to think and judge distinctly of all things.
In this Definition are contained,
1 The Genus.
2 The Object.
3 The End.
The Genus of Logick is an Art; for 1Genus The five principall Habits of Aristotle.It cannot be Wisdom which teacheth and treateth of the highest causes and things.
2 Its not Understanding which containeth and consisteth of the habit of principles.
3 Nor is it Science, which is made up only of such thingsReasons drawn from the properties. as are real and universal.
4 Nor can it be Prudence, which teacheth things that are particular to be done and practised. It remains therefore that it be an Art: For,
First it imitates and perfecteth Nature.Reasons why Logick is an Art.
2 It presupposeth a certain end whereunto it directeth all the means.
3 It is to be known, not for its own, but for the sake of some other; the profit thereof being in use, not speculation.
4 It adviseth nothing of the means, it consults not whether to use these or those means to obtain the end, for that they all are predetermined, and in a certain disposition ordinated to their end.
5 It operates without any contrariety, or repugnancy of the appetite and affections, as not engaging or disengaging them.
6 It is not commendable for the intent or purpose, but for the thing done, the work it self.
7 It is not to be dispraised when it errs of set purpose and industry (for it could have done otherwise) but when it errs of ignorance and unwillingly.
8 It is delivered by an Analytical and Resolutive method, proceeding from the object and end foreknown, unto the means which are to be ordinated.
Ergo, Logick is an Art.
Of the Object of Logick.
2 Object of Logick.The object of Logick is two-fold.
1 That which it directeth.Also the primary object of Logick is Reason, the secondary, Speech, the manifestation and utterance of Reason.
2 That whereto the understanding is directed.
1 The object which Logick directeth, is the Understanding, Reason, Mind or thought of man: wherein two things are to be foreknown.
1 The properties of the understanding.
2 The parts and degrees thereof.
1 The properties of the understanding to the preknowledg9 Properperties of the understanding. of Logical precepts necessary, are 1 That those perceived of sense, be first and best known of the understanding; letBy sin there are three defections in mans Reason. 1 Aberration from the apprebending of things. 2 Obscurity and difficulty, either not being able to comprehend the natures of things, or to discern them with their notes and properties, as in a glasse. 3 Distraction and confusion in the apprehension of them. Logick now hath a medicine to cure these, which it doth, 1 By the explanation of things. 2 By the Probation. 3 By Ordination. the understanding deduce thence its original knowledge. 2 That since the defection of our first parents in Paradise, our understanding cannot faithfully and certainly determine to comprehend the natures of things with distinctnesse and order, and by its own acies and strength to discern the truth, unlesse by artificiall and outward rules, directed and governed, unto which the understanding looks, as the Mariner to the Compasse; In which respect and sense, it is in worse case than the sense…, which have conserved themselves sound & entire since the first apostacie, of their own force and vigour being still able to determine themselves faithfully to know their own objects. 3 That the understanding of it self, is rather carried to the cogitation of things universal (and such objects as are not determined either by will, place, time, &c. circumstances) then unto determinate things and singular, the effects and products of sense. 4 That the understanding acts not in a moment, but successively, in time, and by order. 5 It understands not the same independently, and of it self, but goeth from one thing to another; and hence it is that the distinct knowledge of God is paramount the reach of the understanding, there being nothing in God diverse from God, or what is not God himself: in man there are many things more obvious to knowledge than man himself, but in God there's no such thing, who is conceivable only (& that but most imperfectly) by himself. 6 That at one and the same time it is occupied about, and understandeth but one thing. 7 That the object must be proportionate to it self, and finite; it cannot understand God who is infinite. 8. That it may assent certainly to conclusions proved, even Testimony (if authentique) yet so as no distinct knowledge can be begotten in the understanding, except there be a mean from the nature of the Predicate or Subject; for that to know, is by the Cause. 9 That the instruments of its operation need be pure and composed, should be spirits void of affectuous humours, as Anger, Fear, Malice, Revenge, &c.
Degrees are three,
1 The first degree of the understanding is simple, viz. 2 The Degrees of the understanding.the apprehension of a single Term or Theme, as Peter, Paul, a living Creature.
2 Is the conception of two Terms by way of composition, as when we think, A man is a living Creature: or, A man is a reasonable Creature.
3 Is when in order we think of more than two Terms passing the thought from one to the other, till you come to a third. This is discourse.
Discourse now is two-fold.foreign.
Illative.
Ordinative.
Illative is such a moving of our Thoughts, as when by the repeating the co-ordination of things, that is, the third Term with the two former, we judge the co-ordination of these two Terms to be true or false: This discourse is that which is called Syllogistical.
2 Ordinative is a moving of our thoughts from one part of the doctrine to another, that so we may judge how they consist and hang together. This discourse is called Methodical.
The Object to which the understanding is directed and ordered, is every thing in Nature; for the understanding and comprehending of which in our thoughts, the Understanding needeth and seeketh rules of Logick.
1 Of this object there is a three-fold partition of things.Things to be known, threefold. 1 Some are infinite, as God, and hereunto the serv'ce of Logical Instruments is not sufficient for the eliciting of a perfect conception or knowledge: Others are finite, and create; and of them some be spiritual and imperceptible by sense, and with much ado can the understanding conceive them: Some also be corporall, and to know them and their instruments, Logical instruments chiefly serve.
2 Things in nature are considerable two wayes. 1 Indeterminately without respect or restraint to Term, Place, or other circumstances, as a Man. 2 Determinately unto circumstances, as Peter Paul, &c. About the first (as about things universal) are Logical instruments and directions primarily and principally used About the latter (as about singular) they are used but secondarily.
3 Things are considered absolutely and in themselves, and so are called simple beings, or entia, or things, as a Man. Sometime as co-ordinate, and one with another, as a Man, a living creature: now they are called compounded. About the first, the first part of Logick is used; about the latter, the second and third parts.
The proper end of Logick, is, the ordering and directing3 End of Logick. of mans cogitations (or the acts of mans understanding) in the knowledge of things; this is the true and proper end ofMark, other Disciplines do not so much direct the mind (Physicks, Mathematicks) as teach and minister the knowledge of things; whereas Logick of it self is but foreign. Logick. 1 Because every essential end must be equall to its thing ended, (nor streighter nor larger) because the end constituteth the essence. 2 Every end must be one, for the unity of an Art depends of the unity of the end; as the unity of knowledge depends of the unity of the subject. 3 An End in Arts not conjecturall, such is Logick, must be put when the means are put; and these three Criteria, or rules, exactly do agree in the direction of the understanding: and hitherto having minded the nature and essence of Logick, lets now consider the properties and effects that followeth the essence.
Properties of Logick.
1 No discipline more helpeth the wit, or contemplativeProper acdents, and the effects of Logick. foreign sharpness, i. e. the inclination of the temperature to contemplate distinctly and accurately. 2 Unto the wit belongs, 1, The judgement, or judging faculty, i. e. a disposition soundly to think and perceive whats true, and whats false in 2 things. 2 A facility of learning. 3 Discipline. 4 A witty 3 faculty quickly to find out the mean to prove the truth, and 4 refute the falshood, all which Logick helpeth, ordereth, directeth.
3 Logick is the directory of the thoughts, making them regular, that whatsoever is conceiveable of a thing, may be drawn to a right sum, for an orderly processe in them, and to avoid confusion.
4 When a man hath soundly and well thought on a thing, it enableth him exactly and in order to reach and write it.
5 It causeth a man well to learn that which is well taught.
6 It giveth a reflexive knowledge to a man, that is, it makes a man not onelyonly know (directly) but makes him know that he knoweth a thing.
7 It enableth a man to resolve what is compositively handled by others.
8 It much avails and profits to conference and collations, whether occasional or other.
9 By it, is a man enabled to an apt and regular placing and acquiring of intellectuall vertues, as on which depends the disposition and order of all disciplines, as to their frames and constitution.
10 It is the rule of those habits a man hath acquired, instructing him to work aright; yet I mean but the rules of ingenious and intellectuall operations.
11 In respect of man (that is to learn) it is the rule of all other disciplines whatsoever, but especially for Divinity. I say not, it is essentiall to the simple knowledge of things substantiall to salvation (for this may be by infusion from heaven, without any humane artifice) but I mean, the ordinary way of erudition and skill to handle places in Theologie, depends on Logick.
Now unto Logick (as unto every habit) are required three things, (as it were efficient causes of it) Nature, Method, Exercise.
1. foreign or Nature, that is, a naturall faculty, which consists1 Nature required unto Logick, as the (as it were) efficient cause. of the humours, disposition and temperament of the body, whereby a man is inclinable to this, more then to that Discipline.
2 Method (foreign in the Greek) is a Collection and frame of all Logicall precepts, needful to the acquisition or getting the habit of the Art.
About this frame two things are considerable.
1 Invention. m
2 Conformation. n
The principal Inventor of this Art (as of all other) is them Spirit of God, viz. the holy Ghost; then, men his Instruments in all Ages.
Now the Causes motive of men to invent this Art, were 1 The defect of mans nature, who out of a perceptionforeign that the thoughts of men could not wel determinate themselves to the understanding of things without the help of second thoughts, were forced to frame and devise such, and they call them Logicall notions. a
2 foreign: Admiration of natural effects, arising out of abstruseness of the Causes, causing grief to ingenuous spirits (for, wonder speaks ignorance) by which they were irritated to a serious enquiry after the Causes, which without Logical determinations was not feasable.
3 A puritation and itch after knowledge (innate to every man) Now he that desireth an end, adviseth of, and desireth the means conducent thereunto, and such in speciall is Logick.
The means men used at first (I mean since the Fall) forforeign. the expoliting and adorning of the Art of Logick, is, first, Outward Sense, principally those of Seeing and Hearing. 2 foreign, Observation; and this ever presupposeth †For nothing comes into the understanding but that was some manner of way first in the sense.remembrance, which is nothing but a reflexion upon something formerly taken notice of. 3 foreign, Experience, that is, the collection of many Observations and Examples, and retaining them in memory. 3 foreign, Induction (the third foreign, that is, effect of the understanding, is invention) which from the judgement of the senses, and experience of observations, formeth in the understanding a common and universal notion, which as it were is a rule by which the knowledge and vertue of working are directed in the operation to come.
In the Conformation of this whole Logical Constitution,n two things are very observable.
1 The Formal. q
2 The Material.
1 The formal, &c. consists, 1 In the determinate distribution of the parts. a 2 In the co-ordination of theq parts so determined, unto the end of the whole: b
1 In the distribution of the parts, these foreign, or rulesa are observeable. 1 Every good distribution should be made with words fit and significative unto the minde, of the parts of the whole distributible, but not of any thing not therein contained. 2 Division should be of the whole, not of the parts of the whole. 3 If it be a good division, the parts (divided) will be equal to the whole, and neither more nor less. 4 It should consist of such parts onelyonly as are in the whole, retaining the same order, and agreeing with it. 5 In a good partition there should be a disjunction & segregation of the parts one from another, neither presupposing or including one the other. 6 And this disjunction of parts must be such a disjoyner which mensurates the whole, and whereby the whole is constituted. 7 A division should distinguish the whole, not confound or perplex it. 8 The parts (integral) should be amongst themselves of the same order and nature with the whole, that the whole might the better measure them. 9 Lastly, A good division should be commodious, and apt to notificate the whole.
The second (as it were) efficient cause of Logick, is Method,2 Method requisite to Logick. the division whereof (or the generall way to learn it) is into three parts.
1 The first is of the generall precepts to be foreknown (which precepts are as the Porch of a building) as of the signification of the word or name, the acception of it▪ the genus, or generall title of it, the end, the object, and the parts.
2 Is the Method or frame of the precepts constitutive ofThree parts of Logick precepts. 1 Directrix foreign, 2 Directrix foreign 3 Directrix foreign the Art; these are the chief rooms of the house.
3 The Exemplar or pattern of this Art of Logick to be used and practised, which servs as the Postick and hinder part of this Edifice.
Again, the second of these is tripartite, or admits of a threefold division. The first is, which shews the cogitation to co-ordinate two terms one toward another. The second and third, which direct the discoursive cogitations▪ when they are first Illative, & go by way of inference and consequence; Or 2 When they are ordinative, methodicall, and by conclusion, as is premonstrate; And so much as to the determinate distribution of the parts.
2 Now come we to the Co-ordination of the parts, concerningb which, note these foreign, or Rules. 1 That every constitution or frame, is a mean to some determinate & certain end, therefore it ought to be proportioned and ordered to this end, with a certain proportion, adornment and method, and adapted to the happy acquisition thereof. 2 Whatsoever is in the end or use, must be put into the constitution and frame, not more or lesse. 3 Let no precept go into the frame, that maketh not for the end or use. 4 The use should easily and plainly be understood by the precepts, it being a thing unfit that the instrument should be more hardly understood than the use of it. 5 That we may attain without precepts, there should be no precepts delivered of the same. And thus much of the Formall, of the frame of Logick, now come we to the Material.
2 The Material then of the frame of Logick, consists inThe Material of the frame of Logick. that wherein the partition and conformation before handled is, and it is two-fold.
1 Primary.
2 Representative and Secondary.
The primary Material also is two-fold.
Simple. a
Compound. b
1 The simple material, be the Logical terms, †foreign.wordsa made to represent the sense of the cogitations, so that the understanding is as it were limited and confined within it self in cogitating and thinking; they are called Second Notions.
The first Notions are the conceptions we have of things, as they are things.
Now these second Notions do not directly and by themselves shadow out unto us the things themselves, nor any thing accidental or appendant unto them, but point unto certain intellectual Rules, whereby we do with all distinctnesse and regularity form things, that is, the conceits of things: As the Sailors Compasse doth not give direction to the Mariners by subjecting to the sight the very winds themselves really, but the North-wind, South-wind, &c. as they may be specificated, or the Regions wherein they range. Those that primarily imposed names, intended to name first the things themselves, & then secondly they added second Notions, which we call Mental and Logical: As the word Man, is to expresse primarily the conceit which we form of Humane Nature, and is as the image thereof, and immediately founded therein; for mans nature is the immediate object, and this is a word of the first intention; but when we say, a man is a Species, or a Genus, or Difference, &c. these are words of the second intention, not desumed immediately from the thing, which is humane nature, but from the manner of understanding, whereby we understand such Terms to agree unto Peter, John, and every man.
2 The compound Materiall be the precepts in Logick,b framed of and from those Notions of second …ntention, explicitely & plainly exhibiting to our minds and understandings, those things which the second Notions themselves do but implicitely and darkly; these therefore are necessary unto the learning of this Art of Logick, and ought to be formed according to these subsequent Rules.
1 The precepts of Logick should be made regularly andforeign For the constituting of Logical precepts. fully to obtain the End. 2 Both as to the words of them and number, they should be conceived and set down determinately. 3 They should be Homogeneal, that is, of the same kinde, mensurated and adapted only to this Art and End. 4 They should be framed plain and with perspicuity. 5 They should be apposite and fit to the teaching and learning of this Art.
And so much for the primary Material of Logick.The secondary Material of Dogick. foreign Of the secondary Material.
The secondary Material, or representative, are Examples added to the Precepts, which is only a particular experiment of this or that precept, either upon our selves or others; wherein are observable these following Rules.
1 Examples ought to be agreeable and fitting to the nature and end of the Art, deducing carefully the experiments from those had arrived unto the end of the Art, and that accordingly operated 2 Examples, as accommodate to the precepts, so they should be very intelligible, fit to be made use of, and proportionate to the truth and verity of the precepts. And thus much of the first and second efficient causes, by which the habit of Logick is acquirable (viz.) the Nature, and Method. We come briefly to the third Efficient, which is, Exercise of Logick.
The Exercise then of Logick consisteth in this, that we frequently3 Efficient cause of Logick. think on, & diligently meditate things conformable to the prescriptions and rules of Logick, that is, orderly and distinctly: This indeed is the chief, most principal, and the nearest Efficient Cause of this habit in us of this Art of Logick, and immediately engenerates and expresseth Logick in us, whereas Wit and Precepts are Causes but remote.
The means and parts of this Exercitation are two.
Representative.
Operative.
1 Representative are such as are superadded to theThe means and parts of Exercise two. Rules of Logick, as Experiments and manifest Testimonies, Forms of Disputation, Resolution, &c.
2 Operative is the very Art it self of this Exercitation and Use, which should be by an assiduous imitation of the most eminent wits, and by the agitation of our own. And thus much of the Prolegomena's, and things necessary to the foreknowledge of Logick.
THE FIRST BOOK OF THE Art of Logick.
LOgick is an Art which conducteth the mindWhich directeth simple terms. 3 Parts of Logick. foreign. in the knowledge of things.
It hath three things to be remarked as parts thereof. The first is, that which directs the first operation of the mind, which objecteth to it self onelyonly single or simple things, by the mediation of a single or simple term, which is a notion or instrument of Logick, representing unto the understanding one thing (called therefore incomplex:) and it is called a second notion as it is the minds image and pourtraict, shadowing to it self some outwardforeign. thing. First notions are (as it were) the string or rule of a Dial; second notions are (as it were) the ombre and shadow made by that rule or string: these both shew the hour, but the string or stem first and fundamentally; the second (that is the shadow) but secondarily, as it configurateth to the other.
A single or simple term is,
1 On whom the latter depends, and itSimple terms twofold. is either
of a word,
or of a thing.
2 Arising from the first, and it is also either
of a word,
or of a thing.
Of a Word or Voice.
The term of a Word is that whereby the naming of a thing is considered; a word is the sign of things or conceptions, pronounced or written with a certain frame of letters and syllables.
In a word three things are remarkable.
1 The Material.
2 The formal.
3 The Imposition.
The Materiall is the sound in the pronouncing of the letters and syllables, whereof the word is constituted, either in speaking or writing.
The Formal is the signification of the word, and by consequence the relation to the conceit of the minde which … giveth knowledge of: now the efficient cause of this signifcation, is, the imposition and institution, which in the He brew Tongue is Divine (as God was the institutor and imposer) in other tongues humane, as having been invente and imposed by man.
Unto a Word appertain
1 Divisions.
2 Affections.