The Art of Rhetoric, Book 1 · Part · Section 3 – Section 9
¶Of Questions.
EUeryEvery question, or demaunde in thynges, is of two sortes. Either it is an infinite question, and without ende, or els it is definite, and comprehended within some ende.
Those questions are called infinite,Questions infinite. whiche generally are propounded, withoute the comprehension of tyme, place, and person, or any suche like: that is to saie, when no certain thyng is named, but onelyonly woordes are generally spoken. As thus, whether it be best to marie▪ or to liue single. Whiche is better, a courtiers life, or a scholers life.
Those questions are called definite,Questions definite. whiche set furthe a matter, with the appoynctment, and namyng of place, time and persone. As thus. Whether now it be best here in Englande, for a Prieste to Marie, or to liue single. Whether it were mete for the kynges maiestie, that now is, to marie with a straūger, or to mary with one of his awn subiectes.Questions definite, belong properly to an Orator. Now the definite question (as the whiche concerneth some one persone) is moste agreyng to the purpose of an Orator consideryng particuler matters in the Lawe, are euer debated betwixte certain persones, the one affirmyng for his parte, and the other deniyng, as fast again for his parte.
Thynges generally spoken without al circumstaunces, are more proper vntounto the Logiciā,Questions infinite, proper vntounto Logiciās who talketh of thynges vniuersally, without respect of persone, time, or place. And yet notwithstandyng, Tullie doeth saie, that whosoeuer will talke of a particuler matter, must remēber that within thesame also, is comprehended a generall. As for example. If I shall aske this question, whether it be lawfull for Willyam Conqueroure to inuade Englande, and wynne it by force of armour, I must also consider this, whether it be lawfull for any man, to vsurpe power, or it be not lawfull. That if the greater cannot be borne withall, the lesse cannot be neither. And in this respecte, a generall question agreeth well to an Orators profession, and ought well to be knowen, for the better furtheraunce of his matter, notwithstandyng the particuler questiō, is euer called in controuersie, and the generall onelyonly thereupon considered, to comprehende and compasse thesame, as the whiche is more generall.
¶The ende of Rethorique.
Three thynges are required of an Orator.Orators boūd to perfourme … thynges.
To teache.
To delight.
And to perswade.
FIrst therefore an Orator muste labour to tell his tale, that the hearers maie well knowe what he meaneth, and vnderstande him wholy, the whiche he shall with ease do, if he vtter his mind in plain wordes,Plain wordes proper vntounto an Oratour. suche as are vsually receiued, and tell it orderly, without goyng aboute the busshe. That if he doe not this, he shall neuer do the other. For what manne can be delited or yet be perswaded, with the onelyonly hearyng of those thynges, whiche he knoweth not what thei meane. The tongue is ordeined to expresse the mynde, that one mighte vnderstande anothers meanyng: Nowe what auaileth to speake, when none can tell, what the speaker meaneth? Therefore Phauorinus the Philosophier (as Gellius telleth ye tale) did hit a yong man ouer the thumbes, very handsomely for vsyng ouer olde, and ouer straunge woordes, Sirha (ꝙ he) when our old great auncesters and graundsires wer aliue thei spake plainly in their mothers tongue,A Philosophier… wittie saiyng to a yong manne, that soughte to speake darke language. & vsed old language, suche as was spokē then at the buildyng of Rome. But you talke me suche Latin, as though you spake with them euen now, that were two or thre thousande yeres ago, and onelyonly because you would hauehave no man, to vnderstand what you saie. Now wer it not better for the a thousand fold (thou foolishe fellowe) in sekyng to hauehave thy desire, to holde thy peace, and speake nothyng at all? for then by that meanes, fewe should knowe what were thy meanyng. But thou saiest, the olde antiquitee doeth like thee best, because it is good, sobre, & modest. Ah, liue man as thei did before thee, and speake thy mynde now, as menne do at this daie. And remember that, whiche Cesar saith, beware as long as thou liuest, of straunge woordes, as thou wouldest take hede and eschewe greate rockes in the Sea.
The next parte that he hath to plaie, is to chere his gestes, and to make thē take pleasure, with hearyng of thynges wittely deuised, and pleasauntly set furthe.Orators muste vse delightful woordes, and saiynges. Therfore eueryevery Orator should earnestly laboure to file his tongue, that his woordes maie slide with ease, and that in his deliueraunce, he maie hauehave suche grace, as the sound of a lute, or any suche instrument doeth geue. Then his sentencies must be well framed, and his wordes aptly vsed, throughout the whole discourse of his Oracion.
Thirdly, suche quicknesse of witte must be shewed, and suche pleasaunt sawes so well applied, that the eares maie finde muche delite, whereof I will speake largely, when I shall entreate of mouyng laughter. And assuredly nothyng is more nedefull, then to quicken these heauie loden wittes of ours, and muche to cherishe these our lompishe and vnweldie natures, for excepte menne finde delight, thei will not long abide: delight theim, and wynne them: werie theim, and you lose theim for euer. And that is the reason, that menne commonly tary the ende of a merie plaie, and cannot abide the halfe hearyng of a sower checkyng Sermon.Preachers not so diligentely heard, as common plaiers. Therefore, euen these auncient preachers, must now and then plaie the fooles in the pulpite, to serue the tickle eares of their fleetyng audience, or els thei are like some tymes to preache to the bare walles, for though the spirite bee apte, and our will prone, yet our fleshe is so heauie, and humours so ouerwhelme vsus, that wee cannot without refreshyng, long abide to heare any one thyng.Prechers must sometymes be merie, when thei speake to the people. Thus we se, that to delight, is nedefull, without the whiche, weightier matters will not be heard at all, and therefore hym cunne I thanke, that bothe can & will euer, myngle swete,Deli…ng nedefull. emong the sower, be he Preacher, Lawyer, yea, or Cooke either hardely, when he dresseth a good dishe of meate: now I nede not tell that scurrilitie,Scurrilitie odious. or Alehouse iestyng, would bee thought odious, or grosse mirthe would be deamed madnesse: consideryng that euen the meane witted doe knowe that already, and as for other, that hauehave no witte, thei will neuer learne it, therefore God spede them. Now when these twoo are dooen, he muste perswade, and moue the affeccionsAffecciōs must be moued. of his hearers in suche wise, that thei shalbe forced to yelde vntounto his saiyng, wherof (because the matter is large, and maie more aptly bee declared, when I shall speake of Amplificacion) I wil surcease to speake any thyng therof at this tyme.
¶By what meanes Eloquence is attained.
FIrste nedefull it is that he, whiche desireth to excell in this gift of Oratorie, and longeth to proue an eloquent man, must naturally hauehave a wit, and an aptnesse thereunto: then must he to his boke, & learne to be well stored with knowlege, that he maie be able to minister matter, for all causes necessarie. The which when he hath gotte plentifully, he muste vse muche exercise, bothe in writyng, and also in speakyng. For though he hauehave a wit and learnyng together, yet shal thei bothe litle auaile without much practise.Practise maketh all thynges perfect. What maketh the lawyer to hauehave suche vtteraunce? Practise. What maketh the Preacher to speake so roūdly? Practise. Yea, what maketh women go so fast awaie with their wordes? Marie practise I warraunt you. Therfore in all faculties, diligent practise, and earnest exercise, are the onelyonly thynges, that make men proue excellent. Many men knowe the arte very well, and be in all poynctes throughly grounded, & acquainted with the preceptes, and yet it is not their hap to proue eloquent And the reason is, that eloquēce it self, came not vp first by the arte, but the arte rather was gathered vponupon eloquēce.Rhetorique firste made by wise men, and not wise men firste made by Rhetorique. For wise menne seyng by muche obseruacion, and diligent practise, the compasse of diuerse causes, compiled thereupō preceptes and lessons, worthie to bee knowen and learned of all men. Therefore before arte was inuented, eloquence was vsed, and through practise made parfecte, the whiche in all thynges is a souereigne meane, most highly to excell.
Now before we vse either to write, or speake eloquently we must dedicate our myndes wholly, to folowe the moste wise and learned menne, and seke to fashion, aswell their speache and gesturyng, as their wit or endityng.Imitacion or folowyng the waies of wise men, is nedefull. The whiche when we earnestly mynde to do, we cannot but in time appere somewhat like theim. For if thei that walke muche in the sōne, and thinke not of it, are yet for the moste part sonne burnt, it cannot be but that thei, whiche wittyngly and willyngly trauaile to counterfecte other, muste nedes take some colour of theim, and be like vntounto theim, in some one thyng or other, accordyng to the Prouerbe, by companiyng with the wise, a man shall learne wisedome.
¶To what purpose this arte is set furthe.
TO this purpose and for this vse,Rhetorique, to what purpose it serueth. is the arte compiled together, by the learned and wise men, that those whiche are ignorant, might iudge of the lerned, and labour (when tyme should require) to folow their workes accordyngly. Again, the art helpeth well to dispose and order matters of our awne inuencion, the whiche we may folowe, aswell in speakyng, as in writyng for though many by nature without art, hauehave proued worthie menne,Arte, surer guide, then nature. yet is arte a surer guide, then nature, consideryng we se as liuely by the art, what we do, as though we red a…thyng in writtyng, wheras natures doynges are not so open to all men. Again, those that hauehave good wittes, by nature, shall better encrease theim by arte, and the blunte also shalbe whetted through art, that want nature to help them forward.
¶Fiue thynges to be considered in an Oratour.
ANy one that will largely handle any matter, muste fasten his mynde, first of all vponupon these fiue especial poynctes that folowe, and learne theim eueryevery one.Orators must hauehave fiue thinges to make them perfect.
j. Inuencion of matter.
ij. Disposicion of thesame.
iij. Elocucion.
iiij. Memorie.
v. Utteraunce.
THe findyng out of apte matter, called otherwise Inuencion,Inuencion, what it is. is a searchyng out of thynges true, or thynges likely, the whiche maie reasonably sette furth a matter, and make it appere probable. The places of Logique, geue good occasion to finde out plentitifull matter. And therefore thei that will proue any cause and seke onelyonly to teache thereby the truthe, muste searche out the places of Logique, and no doubte thei shall finde muche plentie. But what auaileth muche treasure and apt matter, if man cānot apply it to his purpose. Therefore in the seconde place is mencioned, the settelyng or orderyng of thynges inuented for this purpose, called in Latine, Dispositio, Disposicion, what it is.the whiche is nothyng els, but an apt bestowyng, and orderly placyng of thynges, declaryng where eueryevery argument shalbe sette, and in what maner eueryevery reason shalbe applied, for confirmacion of the purpose.
But yet what helpeth it though we can finde good reasons, and knowe howe to place theim, if we hauehave not apte wordes, and picked sentences, to commēde the whole matter. Therefore this poynct must nedes folowe, to beautifie the cause, the whiche beyng called Elocucion,Elocucion, what it is. is an appliyng of apte wordes and sentēces to the matter, founde out to confirme the cause. When all these are had together, it auaileth litle, if manne hauehave no Memorie to contein theim. The Memorie therefore must be cherished,Memorie, what it is. the whiche is a fast holdyng, bothe of matter and woordes couched together, to confirme any cause.
Be it now that one hauehave all these .iiij, yet if he want the fift, all the other dooe litle profite. For though a manne can finde out good matter, and good woordes, though he canne handsomely set them together, and cary them very well awaie in his mynde, yet it is to no purpose, if he hauehave no vtteraunce, when he should speake his minde, and shewe men what he hath to saie. Utteraunce therefore is a framyng of the voyce, countenaūce, and gesture, after a comely maner.Pronunciatiō what it is.
Thus we se that eueryevery one of these must go together, to make a perfecte Oratoure, and that the lacke of one, is an hynderaunce of the whole, and that aswell all maie be wā tyng, as one, if we loke to hauehave an absolute Oratour.
¶There are .vii. partes in eueryevery Oracion.Oracions in generall, consist vponupon seuen partes.
j. The enteraunce or beginnyng.
ij. The Narracion.
iij. The Proposicion.
iiij. The diuisiō or seuerall partyng of thynges
v. The Confirmacion.
vi. The Confutacion.
vii. The Conclusion.
THe Enteraunce or beginnyng,Enteraunce, what it is. is the former part of the Oracion, whereby the will of the standers by, or of the Iudge is sought for, and required to heare the matter.
The Narraciō,Narration. is a plain and manifest poynctyng of the matter, and an euident settyng furthe of all thynges, that belong vntounto thesame, with a brief rehersall, grounded vponupon some reason.
The ProposicionProposicion. is a pithie sentence, comprehendyng in a smale roume, the some of the whole matter.
The diuisionDiuision. is an openyng of thynges, wherin we agree and rest vponupon, and wherein we sticke, and stande in trauerse shewyng what we hauehave to saie, in our awne behalfe.
The Confirmacion,Confirmacion. is a declaraciō of our awne reasons with assured and constaunt profes.
The Confutacion,Confutacion. is a dissoluyng or wipyng awaie, of all suche reasons as make against vsus.
The ConclusionConclusion. is a clarkely gatheryng of the matter, spoken before, and a lappyng vp of it altogether.
Now because in eueryevery one of these, greate hede ought to be had, and muche arte must be vsed, to content and like all parties: I purpose in the second boke to set furthe at large eueryevery one of these, that bothe we maie knowe in all partes, what to folowe, and what to eschewe. And first when tyme shalbe to talke of any matter, I would aduise eueryevery man, to consider the nature of the cause self, that the rather he might frame his whole Oracion thereafter.
¶EueryEvery matter is conteined in one of these .iiii.
EIther it is an honest thyng, whereof we speake, or els it is filthy and vile, or els betwixte bothe, and doubtfull what to bee called, or els it is some triflyng matter,Matters ī general, stand in iiii. poynctes. that is of small weight.
That is called an honest matter,Matters honest. when either wee take in hande suche a cause, that all menne would maintein, or els gainsaie suche a cause, that no man can well like.
Then do we hold and defende a filthy matter,Matters, filthie. whē either wee speake against our conscience in an euill matter, or els withstande an vpright truthe.
The cause then is doubtfull, when the matterMatters, doubtfull. is half honest, and halfe vnhonest.
Suche are triflyngMatters, trifelyng. causes, whē there is no weight in thē as if one should phantasy, to praise a Gose, before any other beast liuyng (as I knowe who did) or of fruict to commende nuttes chefly, as Ouid did, or the feuer quartaine, as Phauorinus did, or the Gnatte, as Uirgill did, or the battaill of Frogges as Homere did, or dispraise beardes, or commende shauen heddes.