The Art of Rhetoric, Book 3 · Part 1 · Section 26 – Section 51
¶An euident, or plaine settyng forthe of a thyng as though it were presently doen.
THis Figure is called a description, or an euident declaratiō of a thyng,… as though we sawe it euen now doen. An example. If our enemies shall inuade, and by treason wynne the victorie, we al shal dye eueryevery mothers sonne of vsus, and our Citie shalbe destroied sticke & stoone. I see our children made slaues, our daughters rauisshed, our wifes caried away, the father forced to kil his own sonne,Description of outrage after … battaile. the mother her daughter, the sonne his father, the sucking child slaine in the mothers bosome, one standyng to the kuees in anothers bloude, Churches spoiled, houses pluckte doune, and al set in fier rounde about vsus, eueryevery one cursy…g the day of their birth, children criyng, women wailyng, and olde men passyng for v…ry thought, and eueryevery one thynkyng hymselfe most happy that is first ridde out of this worlde, suche will the crueltie be of our enemies, and with suche horrible hatred wil they seeke to dispatche vsus. Thus where I might hauehave said, we shal al be destroied and saie no more, I hauehave by description sette the euill forth at large. It muche auaileth to vse this figure in diuerse matters, the whiche whosoeuer can do, with any excellent gift, vndoubtedly he shal muche delite the hearers. The circumstaunces wel considered in eueryevery cause, geue muche matter for the plaine opening of the thyng. Also similitudes, examples, cō parisons from one thyng to another, apte translacions, and heaping of allegories and all suche figures as serue for amplifiyng, do muche commende the liuely settyng forthe of any matter. The miseries of the Courtiers lyfe might well be described by this kind of figure. The commoditie of learnyng, the pleasure of plowe men, and the care that a Kyng hath. And not onelyonly are matters set out by description, but men are painted out in their colours, yea buildynges are set forth, Kyngdomes, and Realmes are portured, places, and tymes are described.Diuersitie of natures▪ The Englishe man for feedyng, and chaung of apparel: The Duytche man for drynkyng: The Frenche man for pryde and inconstaunce: The Spāyard for nymblenes of bodie, and muche disdaine: The Italian for great witte and pollicie: The Scottes for boldenes, and the Boeme for stubbornesse.
Many people are described by their degree as a man of good yeres is compted sober, wise and circumspect: a young man wilde, and carelesse: a woman bablyng, inconstant, and redy to beleue al that is tolde her.
By vocation of life, a souldiour is counted a great bragger, and a vaunter of hymselfe: a Scholer simple: a russed coate, sadde aud sometymes craftie: a courtier, flatteryng: a citezen, ie…tle.
I… describing of persons there ought alwaies a commelinesse to be vsed,Description of persone. so that nothyng be spoken whiche may be thought is not in them. As if one shall describe Henry the sixth, he might cal hym ientle, milde of nature, ledde by perswasion, & redy to forgeue, carelesse for wealthe, suspectyng none, merciful to al, fearefull in aduersitie, & without forecast to espie his misfortune. Again for Richarde the third I might bryng hym in, cruell of harte, ambiciouse by nature, enuiouse of mynde, a depe dissembler, a close man for weightie matters, hardie to reuenge, and feareful to lose his high estate, trustie to none, liberal for a purpose, castyng still the worst, and hoping euer the best. By this figure also we imagine a talke for some one to speake, and according to his person we frame the Oration. As if one should bryng in noble Henry the .viij. of most famouse memorie to enueigh against rebelles, thus he might order his Oration. What if Henry theight were alyue, & sawe suche rebellion in this Realme, would not he say thus, and thus? yea me thynkes I heare hym speake euen now. And so set forth suche wordes as we would hauehave hym to saie.
Some tymes it is good to make God, the Countrie, or some one towne to speake, and loke what we woulde say in our owne person, to frame the whole tale to them. Suche varietie doth muche good to auoide tediousenes, for he that speaketh al in one sort though he spake thinges neuer so wittely shal sone wery his hearers. FiguresThe vse of figures. therfore wer inuē ted to auoide sacietie, and cause delite: to refresh with pleasure & quicken with grace, the dulnesse of mās braine. Who wil loke of a whit waul an houre together, where no worke manship is at al? Or who wil cate stil one kinde of meate, & neuer desire chaunge? Certes as the mouthe is daintie: so the wit is tickle, and wil sone lothe an vnsauery thing.
¶A stop, or half tellyng of a tale.
A Stoppe is, whē we breake of our tale before we hauehave told it.Precisio. As thus. Thou that art a young man of suche towardnes hauyng suche frendes to plaie me suche a parte, wel, I will saie no more, God amende all that is amisse. Or thus. Dothe it become the to be, shal I tel al, Naie, I wil not for very shame.
¶A close vnderstandyng.
A Close vnderstandyng is, when more may be gatherd than is openly exprest.Significatio plus ad intelligēdū que dixeris. A naughtie fellowe that vsed muche robbery, founde hym selfe greeued that the greate Oratour Demosthenes spent so muche oyle wherby he watched from tyme to tyme in compassyng matters for thy commune weale: In dede (quoth) DemosthenesDemosthenes. darke nightes are best for thy purpose, meanyng that he was a great robber in the night. O…e also beeyng set in a heate, because another had contraried hym for the choise of meates, was muche more greued when he gaue hym this tauut. You may boldely (ꝙ he) speake for fishe eatyng, for my maister your father hath many a time & ofte wipt his nose vponupon his sleeue, meanyng that his father was a fishemonger.
¶Shorte sencences.
THen shorte clauses, or sentences are vsed when we speake at a worde,Distincte concisa breuitas. parte of our minde, and nest after speake as briefely againe, vsyng to make almost eueryevery worde a perfite sentence. As thus. The man is sore wounded, I feare me he will dye. The Phisicions mistrust hym: the partie is fledde, none persueth: God sende vsus good lucke.
¶Abatyng, or lessenyng of a thyng.
WE make our doynges appere lesse, whē with wordes we extenuateExtenuatio… and lessen thesame. As when one had geuen his fellowe a sound blowe, beyng rebuked for the same saied he scante touched hym. Likewise, when two hauehave fought together, to say that the one had his legge prickte with a sworde, whē perchaunce he had a great wounde.
¶Vvittie iestyng.
MAny pleasaunt ientlemen are well practised in merie conceited iestes,…. and hauehave both suche grace and delite therin, that they are wonderfull to beholde, and better were it to be sharpely chidde of diuerse other, then pleasauntly taunted by any of thē. When a ientleman of great landes & small witte had talked largely at a supper, and spake wordes scant worth the hearyng, an other beeyng muche greeued with his foolie, saied to hym: Sir I hauehave taken you for a plaine meanyng ientlemā, but I know nowe, there is not a more deceiptfull bodie in al Englande: with that, other beyng greeued with the young ientlemans foolie, boldely began to excuse hym for deceipt, and therfore said, he was to blame to charge hym with that fault, consideryng his nature was simple, and few can say that euer he was craftie. Wel ꝙ thother, I must nedes say he is deceiptful, for I toke hym heretofore for a sober wittie young man, but now I perceiue, he is a foolish bablyng felowe, & therfore I am sure he hath deceiued me like a false craftie child, as he is: with that they al laughed, and the ientleman was muche abashed. But as touchyng sharpe tauntes, I hauehave largely declared them in place, where I treated of laughter.
¶Digression, or swaruyng from the matter.
WE swarue sometymes from the matter vponupon iust consideracions,Digressio ab …e non longa. makyng the same to serue for our purpose as wel as if we had kepte the matter stil. As in making an inuectiue against rebelles, & largely setting out the filth of their offence, I might declare by the way of a digression, what a noble countrie England is, how great commodities it hath, what trafike here is vsed, & howe muche more nede other Realmes hauehave of vsus, than we hauehave neede of them. Or when I shal geue euidence, or rather declame against an hainouse Murtherer, I may digresse from the offence doen, and enter in prayse of the deade man, declaryng his vertues in moste ample wyse, that the offense doen, may be thought so muche the greater, the more honest he was that hath thus been slaine.
Notwithstādyng this would be learned, that (whē we make any suche digression) thesame maie well agre to the purpose and be so set out, that it confounde not the cause, or darken the sense of the matter deuised.
¶Proposicion.
PRoposicion is a short rehersall of that,Proposicio quid sis dicturus. wherof we mynde to speake. I will tell you (ꝙ one) there is none hath a worse name then this felow, none hath been so often in trouble, he maie he fautelesse, but I can hardely beleue it, there are enow that will testifie of his naughtinesse, and auouche his euill demeanour to bee suche, that the like hath not been hard heretofore.
¶An ouer passage to another matter.
WHen we go frō one matter to another, we vse this kynde of phraise.Seiunctio as eo quod dictum est▪ I hauehave tolde you the cause of all this euill, nowe I will tell you a remedy for thesame. You hauehave heard of iustification by faith onelyonly, now you shal here of the dignitee of workes, and how necessary thei are for eueryevery christian body.
¶Of commyng again to the matter.
WHen wee hauehave made a digression,Reditus ad propositū. wee ma…e declare our returne, and shewe that whereas wee hauehave roued a litle, we will now kepe vsus within our boundes. In this kynd of digression, it is wisedome not to wander ouer farre, for feare wee shall werie the hearers, before we come to the matter again. I knew a preacher, that was a whole houre out of his matter, and at length remembryng hymself, saied, well, now to the purpose, as though al that, whiche he had spoken before, had been litle to the purpose, whereat many laughed, and some for starke wearinesse wer fain to go awaie.
¶Iteratyug and repeatyng thynges said before.
WHen a man hath largely spoken his mynd,Iteratio. he may repeate in fewe wordes, the somme of his saiyng. As if one should be charged with felonie, that is a man of welth and honestie, he might thus gather his mynd together after a lōg tale told. First I wil proue there is no cause that I should steale, again that I could not possible at suche a tyme steale, and last, that I stole not at all.
¶The conclusion, or …appyng vp of matter.
THe conclusion, is an apt knittyng together of that, whiche we hauehave said before.Rationis apta conclusio. As thus. If reason can perswade, if examples maie moue, if necessitee maie helpe, if pitee maie prouoke, if daungers foreseen, maie stirre vsus to be wise: I doubte not but you will rather vse sharpe lawes, to represse offendours, then with dissolute negligence, suffer all to perishe.
¶Mountyng aboue the truthe.
MOuntyng aboue the truthe, is when we do setfurthe thynges excedyngly & aboue all mennes expectacion, meanyng onelyonly that thei are very great.Veritatis superlatio, at que …aiectio. As thus, god promised to Abrahā, that he wold make his posteritee, egual with the sa…des of the yearth. Now it was not so said, that there should be so many in deede, but that the nomber should bee infinite. For, whether we shall vnderstande those, to bee the children of Abraham, that came of his stocke in fleshe, or els take thē for the children of Abraham, that hauehave the faithe of Abraham: wee shall neuer proue the nomber of men, to bee e…uall with the sandes of the sea, though wee could reken all that hauehave been, from the beginnyng of the worlde. Therfore in this speache, wee muste vnderstande there is a mountyng, called of the Grecians hyperbole: we vse this figure muche in English. As thus. He is as swift as a swallowe, he hath a belly as bigge as a barrell, he is a giaunt in makyng. The whole Temmese is litle enough to serue hym, for wasshyng his handes. In all whiche speaches wee mounte euermore a greate deale, and not meane so as the wordes are spoken.
☞Askyng other, and answeryng our self.
BY askyng other, and answeryng to the question our self,Rogatio. we muche commende the matter, and make it appere very pleasant. If I would rebuke one that hath committed a robberie, I might saie thus. I wonder what you ment to commit suche felonie. HaueHave you not landes? I knowe you hauehave. Are not your frendes worshipfull? Yes assuredly. Wer you not beloued of them? No doubt you were. Could you hauehave wāted any thyng y• thei had? If you would hauehave eaten gold, you might hauehave had it. Did not thei alwayes bidde you seke to them, and to none other? I knowe thei did. What euill happe had you then, to offende in suche sorte not goyng to your frendes, whiche would not se you want, but sekyng for that, whiche you should not hauehave, endaungeryng your self by vntrue dealyng, to fele the power & strēgth of a law, whē otherwise you might hauehave liued in sauegard?
The like kynd of writyng is also vsed, whē we make another body to speake, and yet not aske them any question at al. As when D. Haddon had comforted the duchesse of Suffolkes grace for her childrē, and had said thei wer happly gone because thei might hauehave fallen hereafter, and loste that worthy name, whiche at their death thei had: at last he bringeth in the mother, speakyng motherlike, in her childrens behalfe of this sort, and answereth still to her saiynges. But al these euilles wherof you speake (ꝙ she) hadde not chaunced: Yet suche thynges doo chaunce. Yet not alwayes: Yet full ofte. Yet not to al: Yet to a great many. Yet thei had not chaunced to myne: Yet wee knowe not. Yet I might hauehave hoped: Yet better it had been to hauehave feared.
☞Snappishe askyng.
WE doo aske oftentymes, because we would knowe: we do aske also,Percōtatio because we woulde chide, and sette furthe our grief with more vehemencie, the one is called Interrogatio, the other is called Percontatio. Tullie enueighyng against Catiline, that Romaine rebell, beginneth his oracion chidingly, questio…yng with Catiline of this sort. How long (Catili…e) wilt thou abuse our sufferaunce? How long will this rage and madnesse of thine go aboute to deceiue vsus?
☞Dissemblyng or close iestyng.
WHen we iest closely, and with dissemblyng meanes, grigge our felowe,Dissimutatio, alia dicentis ac significanti… when in wordes wee speake one thyng, and meane in hart another thyng, declaryng either by our countenaunce, or by vtteraunce, or by some other waie, what our whole meanyng is. As when we se one bostyng himself, & vain glorious, to hold him vp with ye and naie, and euer to ad more to that, whiche he saieth. As I knowe one that saied hymself, to be in his awne iudgemēt one of the best in all Englande, for triyng of metalles, & that the counsaill hath often called for his helpe, and cannot wāt hym for nothyng. In deede (ꝙ another) Englande had a sore losse, if God should call you. Thei are all Bungelers in cō parison of you, and I thynke the best of theim, maie thanke you for all that he hath: but yet sir your cunnyng was suche, that you brought a shillyng to nyne pence, naie to sixe pence and a grote to two pence, and so gaue hym a frumpe, euen to his face, because he sawe hym so folishe. A glorious ientlemā that had twoo seruauntes, and belike would be knowen not onelyonly to hauehave them, but also to hauehave mo, said in the presence of a worshipfull man, I meruaile muche where all my seruauntes are? Marie sir (ꝙ one) that thoughte to hitte hym home: thei wer here al two, euen now. Thus he closly mockt hym, and worthely. For, the nomber is not greate, that standeth vpō .ij, and (all) is to muche, when we speake of so fewe.
¶Doubtfulnesse.
DOubtfulnesse is then vsed, whē we make the hearers beleue,Dubitacio. that the weight of our matter causeth vsus to doubte, what were best to speake. As when a kyng findeth his people vnfaithfull, he maie speake in this wise. Before I begin, I doubt what to name ye. Shal I call you subiectes? You deserue it not. My frendes ye are not. To cal you enemies wer ouerlitle, because your offence is so greate. Rebelles you are, and yet that name doeth not fully vtter your folie. Traitors I maie call you, and yet you are worse then traitors, for you seke his death, who hath geuen you life. Thoffence is so great, that no man can comprehend it. Therfore I doubt what to call you, except I should call you by the name of theim all. Another. Whether shall I speake, or holde my peace? If I speake, you will not heare, if I holde my peace, my conscience condempneth my silence.
¶Distribucion.
DIstribucion,Distributio is whē we apply to eueryevery body, suche thynges as are due vntounto them, declaryng what eueryevery one is in his vocacion. It is the duetie of a Kyng, to hauehave an especiall care ouer his whole realme. It is thoffice of his nobles, to cause the kynges will to be fulfilled, and with all diligence to further his Lawes, and to se iustice doen eueryevery where.
It is the part of a subiect, faithfully to do his princes cō maundement, & with a willyng hart to serue him at al nedes.
It is thoffice of a bishop to setfurthe Gods worde, & with all diligence to exhort men to all godlinesse. It is an husbandes duetie to louelove his wife, & with ientle meanes to rule her. It is the wifes office, hūbly to submit her self to her husbā des will. Seruauntes should be faithfull to their maistres, not onelyonly for feare of a law, but also for cōscience sake. Masters should vse their seruauntes accordyngly, paiyng theim that, whiche is due unto them. A father should bryng vp his children in the feare of God. Children should reuerēce their fathers with all submission. It is also called a distribucion, when we diuide the whole, into seuerall partes, and saie we hauehave foure poynctes, whereof we purpose to speake, comprehendyng our whole talke within compasse of thesame.
¶Correccion.
COrreccion,Correctio. is when we alter a woorde or sentence, otherwise then we hauehave spokē before, purposyng therby to augmēt the matter, and to make it appere more vehemēt. Tullie against Verres,Tullie against Uerres. geueth a good example. We hauehave broughte before you my Lordes, into this place of iudgement, not a thefe, but an extorcioner and violēt robber, not an aduouterer, but a rauisher of maides, not a stealer of churche goodes, but an errant traitor, bothe to God and all godlinesse: not a common ruffin, but a moste cruell cut throte suche as if a man should rake hell for one, he could not finde the like. Again, if one would enueigh against bacbiters, after this sort. Thou hast not robbed hym of his money, but thou hast taken awaie his good name, whiche passeth all worldly goodes, neither hast thou slaūdered thyne enemie, but thyne awne brother, & frende, that meant thee well, and hath doen thee pleasures: nay thou hast not slandred him, but thou hast slain hym. For a man is halfe hanged, that hath lost his good name. Neither hast thou killed him with the sword, but poysoned hym with thy tongue, so that I maie call it rather an enchanting, then a murther. Neither hast thou killed one mā alone, but so many as thou hast brought out of charite, with thy moste venemous bacbityng Yea, and last of al, thou hast not slain a man, but thou hast slain Christe in his members, so muche as laie in thee to do. But of this figure I hauehave spoken heretofore, where I wrote of amplificacion.
¶Reieccion.
REieccionReiectio. is then vsed, when we lay suche faultes frō vsus, as our enemies would charge vsus with all, saiyng it is foly to thynke any suche thyng, muche more to speake it: or els to saie, suche a mannes worde is no slaunder, or it nedeth not to talke of suche toyes. Or thus. Who wold thinke that I would doo suche a deede? Or is it like that I would do suche a dede? Antony charged Tully, that he was the occasion of ciuill battaill. Nay (ꝙ Tullie) it is thou, it is thou manne and none other, that settes Ceasar on worke, to seke the slaughter of his countrey.
☞A Buttresse.
A Buttresse is a fe…se made for that,premunitio whiche we purpose to hold vp, or go about to compasse. As thus. I hope my lordes, bothe to perswade this man by reason, & to hauehave your iudgemēt in this matter. For wheras it is a sore thyng to be iustly accused, for breaking frendship, then assuredly if one be wrōgfully slandred, a man had nede to loke about him
☞A familiar talke, or communicacion vsed.
COmmunicacionCommunicatio. is then vsed, when we debate with other, and aske questiōs, as though we loked for an answer, and so go through with our matter, leauyng the iudgement therof to their discrecion. As thus. What thinke you in this matter? Is there any other better meanes to dispatche the thyng? What would you hauehave doen, if you were in thesame case? Here I appeale to your awne conscience, whether you would suffer this vnpunished, if a man should do you the like displeasure.
☞Descripcion of a mannes nature, or maners.
WE describeDescriptio the maners of men, when we set thē furthe in their kynd what thei are. As in speakyng against a coueteous man, thus. There is no suche pi…che pe…y on liue, as this good felowe is. He will not lose the paryng of his nailes. His heire is neuer rounded, for sparyng of money one paire of shoen serueth hym a .xij. monethmonth, he is shod with nailes like a horse. He hath been knowē by his cote this .xxx winter. He spentones a grote at good ale, beyng forced thorowe companie, and taken short at his worde, wherevpon he hath taken suche conceipt sins that tyme, that it hath almost cost hym his life. Tullie describeth Piso for his naughtines of life, wonderfully to heare, yea, worse then I hauehave setfurth this coueteous man. Read the Oracion against Piso, suche as be learned.
☞Error.
ERrourErroris inductio. is, when wee thinke mu…he otherwise then the truth is. As whē we hauehave conceiued a good opinion of some one man, & are often deceiued, to saie, who would hauehave thought, that he euer would hauehave doen so. Now of all menne vponupon yearth, I would hauehave least suspected hym. But suche is the world. Or thus. You thinke suche a man a worthy personage, and of muche honestie, but I will proue, that he is muche otherwise: a man would not thynke it, but if I do not proue it, I will geue you my hedde.
☞Mirthe makyng.
I HaueHave heretofore largely declared, the waies of mirth making, & therfore I litle nede to renue thē here in this placeIn hilaritatē impulsio
¶Anticipacion, or Preuencion.
ANticipacion,Ante occu…patio. is when we preuent those wordes, that another would saie, and disproue theim as vntrue, or at least wise, answere vntounto them. A Godly Preacher enueighed earnestly against those, that would not hauehave the Bible to bee in Englishe, and after earnest probacion of his cause, saied thus: but me thynkes I heare one saie. Sir, you make muche a dooe, aboute a litle matter, what were we the worse, if we had no scripture at al? To whom he answered: the scripture is left vntounto vsus by Goddes awne will, that the rather we might knowe his commaundementes, & liue therafter al the daies of our life. Sometymes this figure is vsed when we saie, we will not speake this or that, & yet doo notwithstandyng. As thus. Suche a one is an Officer, I will not saie a briber. Righte is hyndered throughe might…, I will not saie, ouerwhelmed. Thus in saiyng we will not speake, we speake our mynde after a sort, notwithstandyng.