The Arts of Logic and Rhetoric, Part 1
¶ The Arte of Logike, plainlie ſet foorth in our Englishe tongue, eaſie both to be vnderſtoode and practiſed.
The firste Chapter. Of the Definition and Diuiſion of Logike, and of an Argument.
LOGIKE is an arte of reaſoning.An Arte is that orderlie placinge of rules, whereby the eaſiest being firste ſet down, and thē the harder, the perfect way of learning anie thing, is …ullie ſet downe.
Logike hath 2. partes.
The ſpring of reaſons called Inuention.
Iudgement.
The ſpring of reaſons is the firſte parte of Logike, whiche giueth rules of the ſortes of reaſons, which becauſe it doth helpe much to the finding out of reaſons, is commonly called Inuention.
A reaſon is that, which is apte to reaſon withall, whiche is commonly called an Argument: of which ſorte are all things, when they are referred in conſideration of reaſon one vntounto another. For there is ſuch an agreement of the diuers ſortes of reaſons, as the nature of one hangeth vponupon another, ſo that he that perfect lie knoweth one, may alſo knowe the other, as in this example: God is the Sauior of all men: where GOD being referred to ſaluation, is a reaſon to ſet foorth ſaluation by the cauſe, and ſaluation being referred to God, ſetteth him forth by a thing cauſed, cō monly called the effecte: In which alſo we ſee, he that knoweth GOD to be the cauſe of ſaluation, knoweth alſo ſaluation to be the thing cauſed of God.
Argumentes are many times knowen by their proper notes and markes, as ſhall after appeare: which if they be wanting, they must be knowen by the rules, which doo ſet forth eueryevery ſorte of argumentes.
Of reaſons there are two ſortes.
Firſte.
Thoſe which ariſe of the firſte.
The firſt are thoſe which hauehave beginning in them ſelues, as in this example: LoueLove ſuffereth long. LoueLove is bountifull. LoueLove doeth not frowardlie. Where the Apoſtle ſheweth the excellencie of LoueLove, by a reaſon of deſcription which ariſeth of other reaſons, as of that which LoueLove doth cauſe, long ſuffering: Of the contraries to LoueLove, as enuie, frowarde dealing, &c.
Firſt argumentes are of 2. ſortes
Simple or vncompared.
Compared.
Simple, is a reaſon which hath force in it ſelfe, without regarde of any manner of compariſon: as, Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heauen: Where we ſee, the dooing of the will of God is ſet forth firſt by a reaſon whiche is vncompared, namely by thoſe which ſhould doo it, Men in earth: then by a compariſon of the like, as the Angels in heauen doo it.
Vncompared argumentes.
Agreeable.
Duſagreeable.
Agreeable is that, which doeth agree with that to which in reaſon it is referred, as, LoueLove ſuffereth long, LoueLove enuieth not, where ſuffering long, is a reaſon agreeing with LoueLove, as a thing cauſed with the cauſe: and Enuie is a reaſon diſagreeing with louelove, as one contrarie with another.
Agreeable are of 2. ſortes,
More agreeable.
Leſſe agreeable.
More agreeable are thoſe in whoſe agreement more is giuen and receyued too and from one another, as, When God ſave, all that he had done, beholde it was verie good. Where all his workes, being the thinges cauſed of God, in their agreement with God as with their cauſe, hauehave more from God, then verie good, which is the adioint, hath from all which he hath made, which is the ſubiect of goodnes, or that whervnto it is adioyned. So Chriſt, iuſtification, and good workes, doo agree, but Chriſte being the cauſe, giueth more to iuſtification, then, workes being the ſignes adioyned.
More agreeable arguments are of 2. ſortes,
The cauſe.
The thing cauſed commonly but more vnproperlie, called the effect
The ſeconde Chapter. Of a cauſe.
A CAVSE is that which giueth ſome neceſſarie force for the verie being of the thing cauſed.
A cauſe is of two ſortes,
The one which is without the thing cauſed as the making or efficient cauſe.
The other within the thing cauſed.
The making cauſe is a cauſe which by ſetting the matter & the forme togither, maketh the thing cauſed. As, The Lorde God alſo made man of the duste of the ground, and breathed in his face the breathe of life, and the man was a liuing ſoule Here wee ſee that God which is of him ſelfe without Man, is the making cauſe of man, and did make him, by breathing the breath of life which was the forme, into that of the duſte, which was the matter. Nowe, where more then one doo the proper worke of the making cauſe, all working togither, are the making cauſe. The partes whereof are the chiefe workers called the principall, and the helpes, called the inſtrumentes, and the ende which moueth the making cauſe to ſette the matter and forme togither, is no other cauſe then this, ſeeing it bringeth no other force for the being of the thing, then to moue the making cauſe to worke, As, Of his owne will begatte he vsus with the worde of trueth, that we ſhould be the firste fruites of his creatures. Where the ende, that we ſhould be the firſte fruites of his creatures moued Gods owne will, Gods owne will being the principall worker, to begette vsus with the worde of trueth being the inſtrumentall, And thus much for the efficient or making cauſe.
The cauſes that are within the thing, are thoſe cauſes which are alwayes inſeparablie remayning togither for the being of the thing.
They are twoo,
The matter.
The forme.
The matter is a cauſe of the which the thing cauſed is made: So the Lorde made woman of the ribbe of man. Noah the Arke of pine trees.
The forme is a cauſe, by the which a thing is that which it is: and ſo differeth frō all other things, as in the example of man before mencioned. But the naturall forme of thinges, though they may be conceyued by reaſon, yet they can not well be vttered by ſpeache. The artificiall forme of thinges is much more eaſie to bee conceyued in reaſon, and vttered in wordes: and therefore of ſuch ſpeaches there be many, as in all writers, ſo in the Scriptures eſpeciallie. So God ſet downe the artificiall forme of the Arke and of the Arke of couenaunt, the Table, the Candelſticke, the Tabernacle, the merciemercy Seate, the Altar of burnte offeringes, the Court of the Tabernacle, and all the furniture and appurtenances therevnto: by which artificial forme they be that they be, and differ from all other things.
Thus much of the cauſe: Now followeth the thing cauſed.
The thing cauſed, is that which is by the whole force of all the cauſes, As, So GOD loued the worlde, as he gaue his onlie begotten Sonne, that whoſoeuer beleeueth in him ſhould not periſhe but hauehave eternall life. Where our happines is the thing cauſed: the louelove of God, and faith the efficient cauſe. Chriſt the materiall cauſe, and eternall life the formal cauſe. So alſo euerie worke or mouing of anie thing, is the effecte or thinge cauſed by the worker or mouer. Hitherto of more agreeable reaſons. Of both which, relatiues are a moſt excellent example, they are thoſe which are ſo of and by one another, that they are the mutuall cauſes and effectes one of another. As, The Father and the Sonne, to giuegive and receyue, to teache and to learne.
Nowe of the leſſe agreeable argumentes. Leſſe agreeable reaſons are ſuch in whoſe agreement leſſe is giuen and receyued to and from one another: as appeareth in the example of more agreeable reaſons.
The ſubiect is of two ſortes,
Which receyueth the adioynt.
That wherein the adioint is is occupied.
As in this example, Whereſoeuer the carkaſſe is, thither will the eagles reſorte. Where we ſee in the firſte parte, the worde Where, noting out a place (whiche is the ſubiecte of the thing that is in it) is the ſubiecte which receyueth: the carkas is the ſubiect wherein the Eagles which are the adiointes, occupie them ſelues by reſorting. So Husbandrie is the ſubiect of an Husbandman: Ruling the Church is the ſubiect of the Biſhop, becauſe in theſe things they are occupied.
The ſubiect which receyueth alſo is double,
That which receyueth into it ſelfe.
That which receyueth to it ſelfe.
So Iob was the ſubiect in which was ſoundnes, vprightnes, and the feare of God, and the minde is the ſubiect in which are all euill qualities. So Iob and other menne were and are the ſubiectes which receyue to themſelues ritches, houſes, landes, &c.
An adiointe is that which is adioyned vntounto anie thing, as in all the former examples, the things referred vntounto their ſubiectes, were the adiointes: ſo what ſoeuer is referred vntounto anie thing not being cauſe or effecte of the ſame, it is the adiointe.
Agayne, adiointes are eyther
Common, or
Proper.
Eyther of them ſeparable or inſeparable, which for the moſt part ariſe of the cauſes or being of the things, and are therefore called eſſentiall or of the being.
Common are thoſe which are adioyned vntounto diuers ſubiectes, as the power of eating, drinking, ſleeping, &c. are common adiointes to men and beaſtes, and can not be ſeparated. So ritches, pouertie, ſicknes, and health, are common adiointes to good and euill men, and may be ſeparated from them.
A proper adiointe is that which is alwayes ioyned to one and the ſame ſubiect. So righteouſnes, faith, ioye in the holy Ghoſt, are the proper adiointes to the children of God: ſo to be ſeene and felte are the proper adiointes of a bodie, and the…e are inſeparable. And it was proper to Adam and Ehauah, to enioye paradiſe, and yet ſeparable: Alſo Paule to be rapte vp into the thirde heauen, and yet ſeparable.
Hitherto of an agreeable argument, whereby only thoſe things that differ in themſelues may yet be ſaide to be one. So Chriſte ſayeth: I and my Father are ont, meaninge in nature or cauſe. So Iohn ſaith: There are three which beare witneſſe in heauen, the Father, the Worde, and the Spirite, and theſe three are one, meaning in their witneſſe whiche is their effecte. So Paule ſaith: He that planteth and he that watereth, are one, that is in office and function, which is the adiuncte.
The thirde Chapter. Of diſagreeable argumentes.
DIſagreeable reaſons are thoſe reaſons which diſagree beeing referred one vntounto another.
Diſagreeable reaſons are of two ſortes
Diuers, or ſomewhat differing.
Such as can not ſtande togither, commonly called oppoſites.
Diuers reaſons are thoſe which diſagree onelyonly in reſpect or after a certaine manner, the notes whereof are commonly theſe: Not this but that: albeit, neuertheleſſe, notwithſtanding, and ſuch like. As, I knowe thy workes, thy labour, thy pacience, neuertheleſſe I hauehave ſomewhat against thee, becauſe thou haste lefte thy firste louelove. Where wee ſee, that although theſe were diſagreeing in reſpect of this Church, yet they may agree: for Chriſt may both knowe their pacience and workes, and yet hauehave nothinge againſt them. And theſe reaſons and all ſuch anſwering the one to the other, whiche hauehave notes, are ſometimes ſet downe fully by their partes anſwering one vntounto another, ſometimes by their notes onelyonly.
Reaſons which can not ſtande togither, are reaſons which differ not onelyonly in reſpecte, but alſo in nature, or the thing it ſelfe, and therefore can not agree with the ſame thing, at the ſame time, according to the ſame reſpecte or conſideration So one can not be ſicke and well at the ſame time in the ſame parte, in conſideration of the ſoule or body, but he may be ſicke to daye, and whole to morrowe, ill in his heade, and well in his hande, well in reſpect of his body, and ill in reſpect of the ſoule.
Oppoſites are eyther
ſundrie, commonly called diſperates,
or contrarie.
Sundrie or diſperates are oppoſites, whereof one is equallie ſet againſt manie. Dauid Pſalm 8. ſheweth, that God hath giuen dominion vntounto man, ouer ſheepe, oxen, beaſtes of the fielde, foules of the ayre, fiſhes of the ſea, all which creatures are equally ſet one againſt another.
Contraries are oppoſites whereof one is ſet againſt one. And therefore they directlie fight one againſt another: So Chriſt and Beliall, light and darkenes, Chriſte and Antichriſt, heauen and hell, life and death, good and euill, iuſt and vniuſt, ſicke and whole, to be ones Father and his, begotten Son. And hitherto of vncōpared reaſons.
The fourth Chapter. Of compared argumentes.
COMPARED reaſons are ſuch as are compared one with another, whiche when it hath partes, the firſte ſetteth downe the compariſon called the propoū ding parte or propoſition, the other applyeth the compariſon to the thing compared called the applying, rendring parte or reddition. As, Mat. 24. As in the dayes of Noah, ſo ſhall the comming of the Sonne of m…n be. For as in the dayes which were before the floud, they did eate and drinke, they maried and gaue to mariage, euen vntounto the daye in whiche Noah entred into the Arke, and knewe not till the floude came and tooke them all, ſo ſhall the comming of the ſonne of man be. In which example in the firſte of the verſes, there are the ſignes of the compariſon, As, And ſo, in the two latter verſes, are the two partes of the whole compariſon, the firſte ſetting downe the compariſon whiche is taken from the floude of Noah, the other applying the compariſon to the thinge compared, that is, the comming of Chriſt.
Compariſon is eyther in
Quantitie, or
Qualitie.
Compariſon of quantitie, is when the quantitie of the things is cōpared togither.
Quantitie is eyther
Equall, or
vnequall.
Reaſons of equall compariſon, are thoſe whoſe quantitie is equall.
The notes of the equall reaſons are theſe: As, equall, alike, the ſame that, ſo much, no greater, as in theſe examples: With what meaſure ye meate, with the ſame it ſhalbe meaſured to you agayne. So Nomb. 9. Ye ſhall hauehave the ſame lawe both for the ſtraunger, and him that it borne in the lande So Ioſuah 14. And yet am I ſo ſtrong at this time, as I was when Moſches ſente me, as ſtrong as I was then, ſo ſtrong am I nowe, eyther for warre or for gouernement. Hebr. 1. 4. And is made ſo much the more excellente than the Aungelles, inaſmuch as he hath obteyned a more excellent nature then they.
Vnequall are thoſe whoſe quantitie is not the like.
Vnequall reaſons are of two ſortes
Greater.
Leſſer.
The greater is that whoſe quantitie is greater then that wherevnto it is compared: the notes whereof are theſe: Not onelyonly, but alſo: rather this then that: Alſo eueryevery note of a greater degree of compariſon. As, Rom. 5. 3. Neyther doo we ſo onelyonly, but alſo we reioyce in tribulation. Likewiſe Pſal. 88. 10. I had rather be a doore keeper in the houſe of the Lorde, then to dwell in the tabernacle of Princes. And Prouer. 8. 11. For wiſedome is better then precious ſtones. Alſo Plal. 19. And more to be deſired then golde, & ſweeter alſo then the hony cōbe.
Alſo denialles in compariſon, As 1. Cor. 1. 1…. Chriſt ſent me not to Baptiſt, but to preache, to witte, not ſo much to baptiſe, as to preache.
The leſſer are thoſe whoſe quantitie is leſſer then that, wherevnto it is cōpared, the ſignes whereof are theſe, not this onelyonly, but not that, or no not that, or a deniall of the equall or equalitie. As, 1, Cor. 3. 2. For you were not able to beare it, no nor are ye newe able to beare it. Alſo Rom. 3. 12, There is none that doeth good, no not one. Likewiſe 2. Kings 23. 25. where Ioſias is denied to be equall to the Kings that were before, or after him, and preſented aboue them all. Hezechiah by the ſame argument is commended 2. King. 16. 5. So the ſerpent is commended to be the ſubtilest beast of all that were vponupon the earth, Gen. 3. 1.
Hitherto of the compariſon of quantitite.
Nowe followeth the compariſon of qualitie.
Which is eyther of thinges
Like.
Vnlike.
Like, which hauehave the ſame qualitie, the ſignes whereof are, Like as, euen as, and ſo, alſo, a deniall of the like; vnlike. Mat. 13. 24. The kingdome of heauen is like vntounto man that ſewed good ſeede in his fielde. Mat. 6. 5. When thou prayest be net as the hipocrites are. Alſo Mat. 24. 37 But euen as in the dayes of Neah, ſo ſhall the comming of the Sonne of man be. Likewiſe Gal. 4. 1 Then I ſaye, the heire as long as he is a childe, differeth nothing from a ſeruaunt, though he be Lorde ouer all.
The partes of a ſimilitude are ſometimes ſeuered or diſtinguiſhed by three conſiderations or ſteppes of compariſon, commonly called termes: and ſometimes by fower. By three, 1 Theſ. 3. 2. For you your ſelues alſo knowe perfectlie, that the Lorde ſhall come euen as a theefe in the night. Where one ſteppe of compariſon muſt be twice repeated thus: As the theefe in the night commeth ſodainly, ſo the Lords day commeth ſodainly.
By fower, in the 3. verſe thus: For when they ſhall ſay, peace and ſafetie, then ſhall come vponupon them ſodaine destruction, as the trauell of a woman with childe. wherein fower ſeuered or diſtincte termes or ſteppes are playne and manifeſt, to witte, the careleſſe wicked, ſudden deſtruction, the woman with childe, ſodayne trauell.
Vnlike is that, whoſe qualitie in compariſon is not the ſame. The ſignes or notes whereof are, Vnlike, differing, otherwiſe: As, Dan. 7. 7. And it was vnlike the beastes of the fielde, that were before. Alſo 1. Tim. 6. 3. If any man teache otherwiſe. Alſo 5. 25. and 1. 3. Thus much of the firſt reaſons. Nowe followe thoſe that ariſe of the firſte.
The fifte Chapter.
REaſons ariſing of the firſte, are thoſe which are made by the ioyning togither of the firſte.
They are of two ſortes,
More Artificiall.
Leſſe artificiall.
More artificiall is that which hath force of it ſelfe to reaſon withall. Rom. 4. 6. As Dauid alſo deſcribeth the bleſſednes of a man to whom God imputeth righteouſnes without workes, Bleſſed are they whoſe iniquities are forgiuen, and whoſe ſinnes be couered. Where the Apoſtle ſetteth forth righteouſnes by a declaration ariſing of two arguments, to witte, agreeing as the cauſe, imputation of righteouſnes: diſagreeing, without workes. Which reaſon hath force in it ſelfe, becauſe of the force which theſe two argumentes giueth vntounto it: but the profe of this declaratiō which is drawen from the witneſſe of Dauid, hath not ſo much authoritie from the thing ſaide, or the matter it ſelfe, as from the author of it Gods ſpirit by Dauid.
Of the more artificiall argumentes ariſing of the firſte, there are two ſortes,
Diuiſion, commonly called
Diſtribution.
Definition.
Diuiſion is when the whole is diuided into the partes.
The whole is that which conteyneth or hath in it the partes.
The partes is that which is conteyned of the whole
A Diuiſion is made of argumentes which are agreeable to the whole, but diſagreeable amongeſt them ſelues, ſo that it is ſo much the more perfect, by how much the partes do more agree to the whole, and more diſagree amongeſt themſelues.
Diuiſion is made of reaſons which are
More agreeable,
Leſſe agreeable.
Firſt of the cauſe.
Then of the thing cauſed.
A Diuiſion made of the cauſe, is when the partes be cauſe of the whole, and then they are properly called members: for a member is that parte which giueth being to the whole, and the whole being of ſuch mēbers, is called integrall. For a man in the ſcripture is often diuided into his members, the ſoule and the body: and the body into his members, as head, handes, feete, &c. So the whole Lawe diuided into his two members, Firſt, which teacheth our duetie towards God in the firſt table, and that whiche teacheth vsus our dutie towards our neighbour, in the ſecond table. The whole Churche is deuided into his members, the parte in heauen, and the parte in earth.
Diſtribution of the thing cauſed, is whoſe partes are cauſed of the whole, or are the effect of the whole, as when the whole kinde or generall is diuided into his ſeuerall ſortes or ſperialls.
The whole kinde or generall is a whole, which giueth or conteyneth the …eing or eſſence which is common to the ſeuerall ſortes or ſpecialls, as a liuing thing is generall to man and beaſt, conteyning in it a bodily ſubſtance, which hath life and ſenſe, whithe is the generall being of man and beaſt.
A ſeuerall ſorte or ſpeciall, is a parte comprehended vnderunder the whole kinde or generall forme, from whence he taketh that being which is commō to all the other partes or ſpecialls, as in the 10. to the Rom. The Apoſtle diuideth the ordinarie offices of the Church into Prophetes, that is Miniſters occupied in the worde, and other Miniſters occupied in other buſines in the Church. The firſte ſorte he diuideth againe into the Teacher who is occupied in doctrine, and the Paſtor who is occupied in exhortation▪ The ſeconde ſorte againe into Elders, which rule the Church, and Diſtributors, whiche diſtribute to the poore, in which and ſuch like exāples, the firſte is called the moſt generall, the other the vndergenerall or ſubalternall, which in reſpect of the former, is the ſpeciall, and in reſpect of that foloweth is the generall. The laſte, is the loweſt ſorte, or moſt ſpeciall, becauſe it can not be diuided into moe ſpecialls, and this diuiſion of the cauſes into the effectes, is moſte excellent: yet that is not to be neglected when the partes are only ſet forth by their effectes, as Salomon maketh a diuiſion of fower ſmall things in the earth by the effectes, the Emmets prepare their meate in the Sommer, the Miſe which make their dwelling in the Rockes, and the Greſ…oppers, which goe out in bandes.
Hitherto of the diſtribution of more agreeable reaſons.
Nowe followeth of leſſe agreeable.
As of the
Subiect.
Adiointe.
The Deuiſions of the Subiecte or adioynt, are when the partes are ſet foorth by the ſubiectes or adiointes. So Iohn 1. 5 6. 7 8. In his diuiſion of witneſſes, ſetteth foorth the partes by the ſubiecte, ſome in heauen and ſome in earth. So Matt. The ſeede is deuided by the place: Some fell in ſtonie grounde, ſome in thornie grounde, ſome in the high way. So for the adiointes, Rom. 1 4. 5. Chriſtians are deuided by their adioyntes, ſome are ſtronge, ſome weake.
Of a Definition or ſetting foorth of a thing.
A Definition is a reaſon ariſing of the firſte, which ſetteth downe what a thing is,
It is eyther
Perfecte, or
Vnperfecte.
A perfecte Definition or ſetting foorth of a thing, is that, whiche is made of the whole kinde or generall, and the proper difference of that ſeuerall ſorte which is defined, where the firſte parte is called the generall, the other the proper or ſpeciall difference. So ſinne is defined to be the going aſide from the Lawe or right rule of obedience, where the going aſide is the general, & the right rule of obedience is the proper difference. So the Church is a number of men in Chriſt Ieſus, where A number of men is the generall, and in Chriſt Ieſus, is the proper difference.
A deſcription or an vnperfect ſetting forth of a thing, doeth ſet a thing forth by any other reaſon. So Iob deſcribeth Leuiathan by his partes, his adiointes, compariſons, ſimilitudes, effectes. &c.
Thus much of the more artificiall argumentes. Nowe followe the leſſe artificiall.
The ſixte Chapter. Of the leſſe artificiall argument, called a Teſtimonie.
A LESSE artificiall reaſon, is a reaſon ariſing of the firſte, which reaſoneth not ſo much by his owne force, as by the power of other reaſons. It is called a Teſtimonie or witneſſe.
A teſtimonie is eyther a
Lawe, or
Notable ſentence, ſuch as be Parables, Kiddles,
Prouerbes, &c. confeſsions, and Recordes. &c.
And they both are, eyther only pronounced, or written alſo.
Both of thoſe ſortes alſo may be
With an othe,
Without an othe.
And thoſe are the generall properties of a Teſtimonie.
His ſortes are eyther of
God, called Diuine.
Man, called humane.
For a Lawe, Rom. 7. there is a lawe written of God, to proue that a woman maye not forſake her husbande as long as he liueth.
For a notable ſentence, Luc. 4. 23. there is a parable, Phiſitian healethy ſelfe. So all the prouerbes of Salomon are diuine and notable ſentences.
Thus much of the ſpring of Reaſons.
Nowe followeth Iudgement.
¶ THE SECONDE BOOKE.
The firste Chapter. Of Iudgement.
IVdgement is the ſeconde parte of Logike, concerning the ordering of reaſons, whereby they may be the better iudged of, which order ſometimes is altered by additions, leauinges out, or diſplacing of anie thing, and this is called the hidinge of Arte, when it is done artificially and to good purpoſe.
It is eyther of
One ſentence, called an Axiome, and that parte is called
Axiomaticall.
Moe ſentences.
An Axiome or ſentence is that ordering of one reaſon with another, whereby a thing is ſaide to be or not to be.
The partes of an Axiome are
The couple or bande.
The partes coupled.
The couple is that which ioyneth the other partes togither.
The partes coupled, are
The former.
The latter.
The former is that parte which goeth before, and is called the antecedent.
The latter, which followeth, and is called the conſequente, As in this: A ſofte anſwere appeaſeth wrath: where a ſofte aunſwere being a cauſe, and the former parte of this axiome, is ioyned by the couple, doeth, with the effecte and latter parte, appeaſe anger.
An axiome or one ſentence is eyther
Affirming, or
Affirmatiue.
Denying, or negatiue.
An affirming axiome is, whoſe couple doeth affirme.
Denying is, whoſe couple doeth denie. And although in our Engliſh tongue Deniall is ſet after the bande, yet in reaſon and in other tounges, it goeth before, and denieth the bande.
From this affirming or denying, commeth the gayneſaying or contradiction of axiomes, which is when the ſelfe ſame axiome is playnlie and flatlie affirmed and denied. As in this: Good workes doo iustifie. Good workes doo not iustifie.
An axiome is true, when it is ſo affirmed or denyed, as the thing is in deed, otherwiſe falſe.
Which both are eyther
Neceſſarie or
Doubtfull.
Neceſſarie, when the axiome is true or falſe without exception: yet to a generall axiome to make it neceſſarily true, exception is to be added: As, Whoſoeuer putteth awaye his wi…e, except for the eaſe of fornication, committeth adulterie.
Doubtfull, when the trueth or falſehoode is vncertayne, which is called a contingent axiome. As:
God is good, is neceſſarilie true.
The Deuill is good, is neceſſarilie falſe.
The godly do proſper in outwarde bleſsings, is doubtfull.
And here the iudgement muſt be according to the propertie of the axiome: as, that which is neceſſarily true, muſt be abſolutely graunted or affirmed: and that whiche is neceſſarily falſe, muſt be abſolutely denied: and that whiche is doubtfull, muſte bee doubtfullie affirmed, or denied: or elſe for certaintie diſtinguiſh how farre you denie, and howe farre you graunte.
Nowe, when axiomes are exactlie iudged, they muſt not only be according to this rule of trueth, but alſo according to the rules of rightfull placing or rightfulnes, and wiſe placing, or rule of wiſedome.
The rule of rightful placing is, when reaſons are placed in an axiome, according to their proper conſiderations, ſpoken of before in Inuention: As, the proper forme with the proper thinge formed, the proper ſubiecte, with the proper adiuncte: the proper generall with the proper ſpeciall. As, All the going aſide from the rule of goodnes, is ſinne, which both is neceſſarilie true, & the proper general is affirmed of the proper ſpeciall. But it is contrariwiſe in this axiome: The lawe of God is perfect. For perfectnes is cōmon to many other things, as to God and his creatures in their firſte creation.
Wiſe placing, is when reaſons whihch may be equally affirmed or denied one of the other, are ſo placed, as that which is beſt knowen be in the firſt place, as in the placing of reaſons, the cauſe muſt be before the effect, the ſubiect before the adioint, &c. As, All going from the rule of godlines, is ſinne, is wiſely placed, becauſe the proper generall is ſet before the proper ſpeciall, which is, as it may be turned, All ſinne is goinge from the rule of righteouſnes, it is truly and rightly placed, but not according to this exact rule, for the proper ſpeciall, not ſo manifeſte as the proper generall, is notwithſtanding ſet before, which yet 1. 10. 5. is placed according to this rule. All vnrighteouſnes is ſin.
The ſeconde Chapter.
THE ſortes of an Axiome is eyther
Single, called Simple.
Double, called compound.
A ſingle axiome is an axiome, whoſe bande is noted out by is, or are, or ſome ſuche …e. Where this is to be marked, that in the exacte placing of this axiome, nothing els muſt be in the ſeconde parte, but that wherof the firſt is affirmed or denied: As in this example: EueryEvery ſinne is to be blamed: this is a ſimple axiome, and exactlie placed. But euerie man is lying is be blamed: is not exactely placed. And in this kinde of axiome, all argumentes, excepte diuers, and compariſons, and diſtributions may be coupled, ſo that the agreeable be alwayes affirmed, and the diſagreeable be alwayes denied. As, GOD dooth iustifie. Where the cauſe and the effecte are coupled togither. EueryEvery man is a lyar. Where the ſubiecte and the adiūcte are coupled togither. God cannot lye: where we ſee that two contrarie argumentes are coupled togither. Iohn 1. In the beginning was the Worde: Here the partes are turned: for it muſt be thus vnderſtoode: The worde was in the beginning. So, God is in deede true: there in deede aboundeth. Coloſſ. 2. 22. All which periſhe in the vſe, according to the commaundementes of men, here preſcribed, accordinge to the commaundementes of men, or ſome ſuch thing muſt be vnderſtoode. So Iohn 1. 21. No, meaning, I am not the Prophete, where both antecedent and conſequent is wanting.
The ſingle Axiome is eyther,
Generall.
Speciall.
Generall is, when the latter parte is generally referred or attributed to the former, As, All men are lyars.
Speciall is, when the latter parte is ſpecially attributed to the former.
Speciall is eyther
Particular.
Proper.
Particular is a ſpeciall, when the latter parte is referred to ſome of the former, but without certaine limitation. As: Some men are aheadie turned backe vntounto Sathan. Where the contradiction muſte be a generall negatiue axiome: as, No men are turned vntounto Sathan. Alſo: Some men hauehave …ayth: No man hath fayth.
Proper is, when the latter parte is referred to the former being one ſingular or proper thing: As, Paule is the Apostle of Ieſus Christe: whoſe contradiction is, Paule is not the Apostle of Chriſte.
Thus much of a ſingle Axiome.
Nowe followeth the double or compounde.
A double or compounde axiome is, which is made of diuers ſimple axiomes, whoſe bande or couple is noted out with and, or if, although &c. which ioyne ſentences togither, and are commonly called coniunctions.
Here the turninge of partes is verie common and to be marked, and eſpeciallie becauſe of the forme of prouing which ſhall followe: As, If thou keepe my Sabothe, I will bleſſe thee. Eſai. 58. 13. 14. which muſt be thus turned, if one will bring it to this certayne forme of proofe. If I will bleſſe thee, thou must kepe my Sabbothe, but thou doeſt not, Ergo
Alſo a compounde Axiome according to the nature of his coniunctions,
Is eyther
Gathering or congregatiue.
Seuering or ſegregatiue.
A gathering or congregatiue Axiome is which by ſuch bandes or coniunctions coupleth togither the agreeable and diſagreeable argumentes, affirming the one, and denying the other.
The gathering axiome is eyther,
Coupling or copulatiue.
Knitting or connexiue.
Coupling or copulatiue is that, whoſe bande or couple is, and, alſo▪ &c. Iames. 3. 17. The wiſedome that is from aboue, is first pure, then peaceable, and gentle, and eaſie to be intreated, and full of merciemercy and good workes▪ &c.
The true iudgement of this Copulatiue Axiome, dependeth vponupon the trueth of euerie particular parte. For if all the partes be true, it is a true Axiome: If one onelie be falſe, is a falſe Axiome. Herevnto may be referred the full compariſons and the ſimilitudes, as, Looke what number of ſtarres there be in the heauens, ſo many in nomber ſhall thy ſeede be: ſaide God to Abraham. Whoſe contradictions, are the deniall of euerie parte.
A knitting or connexiue axiome is, whoſe couple is, If, as, If you were the children of Abraham, you would doo the workes of Abraham. Whoſe contradiction is, If the firſte bee yet the ſeconde doeth not followe. So that whē we iudge this axiome to be true. we muſt iudge the partes to be truelie and neceſſarilie knitte togither. Which may be, though the partes be both falſe: as in this example: The Iewes neyther were Abrahams children, neither did the workes of Abraham This axiome is doubtfull, when the partes and the following are doubtfull: As Paule in the ſhippe: If you obeye my counſell, you ſhall not periſhe. Hitherto muſt be referred the bande which is expreſſed by the worde of tyme: as, When we were Gentills, we liued according to the fleſhe. Alſo, When I was a childe, I ſpake as a childe.
A ſeuering or ſegregatiue axiome is, whoſe couple or coniunction is ſeuering, and therefore is fitteſt to diſpoſe the diſagreeable argumentes.
It is eyther
Diſcerning, or diſcretiue.
Diſioyning, or diſiunctiue.
Diſcerning is, whoſe couple or coniunction is diſcerning. Therefore of diſagreeable argumentes it is fitteſt to diſpoſe the diuers. As, Although Eſau ſought the bleſſing through teares, yet he founde no place to repentance: whoſe contradiction is the denyall of the principall coniunction, as, not although. This axiome is iudged to be true and wittie, when as the partes be not only true, but alſo diuers: otherwiſe it is iudged falſe or ridiculous: As although a man be a foole, yet he wanteth witte.
The diſioyning or diſiunctiue axiome, is whoſe couple or cōiunction is diſioyning: As, Rom. 14. 4. EueryEvery one ſtandeth or falleth. &c.
Here the contradiction doeth not neceſſarily make the partes true or falſe: For the diſiunction maye bee true, although the partes ſeuerallie conſidered bee doubtfull: As, Eyther Peter was at Rome, or not, Where we ſee the diſiūction to bee neceſſarie, though the partes be doubtfull.
Thus much of the iudgement of one ſentence or axiome.
Nowe followeth of mo ſentences or axiomes.
The fourth Chapter.
THE iudgement of moe Axiomes is, when one axiome is inferred one vponupon another, or drawen one out of another.
It is eyther
A certaine frame of prouing, called a Sillogiſme.
Or a playne and perfect waye of handlinge any thing, called
Methode.
A frame of prouing or Sillogiſme, is that placing of an argument founde out, with a queſtion in 3. Axiomes, where the two firſte being graunted, the thirde doeth neceſſarilie followe. Therefore when an axiome is doubtfull, it is made a queſtion, and for proofe of the trueth, we muſt inueate a thirde reaſon, and place it with the queſtion after the forenamed order.
The partes of a Sillogiſme are,
Former, or antecedent.
Latter, or conſequent.
The former or antecedent, is that vponupon which the cōcluſion is inferred or brought in.
It hath two partes,
The propounder, or propoſition.
The applier or aſſumption.
The propoſition is the firſte parte, wherein at the leaſt the latter parte of the queſtion is placed with the reaſon founde out.
The aſſumption is the ſeconde parte which is taken out of the propoſition.
The latter parte or concluſion is that parte which is inferred vponupon the antecedent, concluding the queſtion in this ſorte:
Euerie ſinner is ſubiect to condemnation.
Euerie man is a ſinner. Ergo
Euerie man is ſubiect to condemnation.
In this example we ſee firſt, that the concluſion ſtanding vppon two argumentes, the ſubiecte and adiunct, is made a queſtion: and by the thirde argument, Sinner, the affirmatiue is proued true, by the fitte placing of it in theſe three axiomes, wherein at leaſt the laſte parte of the queſtion is placed in the propoſition.
Here marke that if any parte be wanting, it is called the kinde of an imperfect Sillogiſme, which is called an Enthimeme, or an holding in the minde. If anything be added more then the axiomes vſually placed in a Sillogiſme, it is called a proſyllogiſme, or an addition to a ſyllogiſme, or ſeconde proofe. The partes of a ſyllogiſme are oftentimes diſorderly placed, as in this example, where the Apoſtle proueth that wee are iuſtified by faith:
Eyther we are iustified by faith, or by the workes of the lawe.
But not by the workes of the lawe: Ergo
By faith.
Here the propoſition is wanting: the aſſumption is founde in the 20. verſe of the 3. Chap. the concluſion in the 22. verſe, and in the ende of the 20. verſe there is a proſyllogiſme or ſeconde proofe, whereby the aſſumption is proued: as thus: By the Lawe commeth the knowledge of ſinne: Therefore we are not iustified by it.
The fifte Chapter.
OF Sillogiſmes, ſome are ſimple or ſingle, others are compounde or double.
The ſimple is that wherein the latter parte of the queſtion is placed in the propoſition, and the former parte in the aſſumption.
This is ſayde to be affirmatiue, when that all the partes doo affirme: negatiue when that all the partes do denie. Generall where the concluſion & propoſition or aſſumption be generall: ſpecial, when one of them onelyonly is generall: proper, when both of them are proper.
There are two ſortes of a ſimple Syllogiſme,
The one more playne.
The other more artificiall.
A more playne is, whoſe order of placing is more playne then the reſte, and it is, when the reaſon founde out to proue a particular queſtion, goeth before in both partes, and is affirmatiue in the aſſumption.
All our Fathers had the ſame Sacrametes in ſubstance.
Many of the Fathers were not ſaued,
therefore ſome were not ſaued that had the Sacramentes in ſubstance.
The propoſitiō is in the 1. of the Cor. the 10. The Aſſumption, verſ. 5. Which ſorte of ſimple Sillogiſmes, becauſe of the playnes of it, is very ſeldome found ſet forth in al his partes, but moſt commonlie in this order. The argument being put for an example.
Some putting away good conſcience, hauehave made ſhip wracke of ſayth, as Alexander and Hymeneus.
1 Tim. 1.
The affirmatiue generall.
All the iustified ſhalbe ſaued:
All the iustified ſhall raigne with Christ: Therefore
Some that raigne with Christ, ſhalbe ſaued.
The negatiue with the propoſition generall.
No hypocriticall caller vponupon God ſhalbe ſaued:
All hypocriticall callers vponupon God, ſay, Lorde, Lorde, Therefore
Some that ſay, Lorde, Lorde, ſhall not be ſaued.
Affirmatiue ſpeciall.
Some who ſell in the wildernes, hearde the worde.
All who fell in the wildernes, tempted God, Therefore
Some that hearde the worde, tempted God. Heb. 6. 3.
Negatiue ſpeciall is:
No right Papict is a true ſubiect:
Some right Papist is a Ieſuite: Therefore
Some Ieſuite is not a true ſubiecte.
Affirmatiue proper.
Abraham beleeued God, and it was imputed to him for righteouſnes:
Abraham was a man, Therefore
Some man beleeued, and it was imputed to him for righteouſnes.
Negatiue proper:
Paule was not condemned:
Paule was an Apostle, Therefore
Some Apostle was not condemned.
Leſſe plaine Sillogiſmes are thoſe, whoſe frame of concluding is not ſo plaine: and here the propoſition muſt be alwayes generall or proper, & the concluſion negatiue, if eyther propoſition or aſſumption be negatiue: and of this there are two ſortes. The firſt, where the reaſons founde out doo followe both in the propoſition and aſſumption, and muſt be denied in one of them.
The firſte generall:
Euerie true Christian, can iuſtifie his religion by his workes:
The diſſembling profeſſor can not iuſtifie his religion by his workes, Therefore
The diſſembling profeſſor is no true Chriſtian.
The ſeconde generall.
Euerie Chriſtian loueth God:
No tranſgreſſor of the commaundemente loueth God, Therefore
No tranſgreſſor of the commaundement is a true Chriſtian.
The firſte ſpeciall.
A Paſtor is not an Apoſtle:
Paule is an Apoſtle: Therefore
Paule is no Paſtor.
The ſeconde ſpeciall.
An Apoſtle may preache throughout the worlde.
Archippus may not preache throughout the worlde,
Therfore Archippus is not an Apoſtle.
The firſte proper.
Iudas Iſcariote was not the ſeruaunt of Chriſt:
Iudas the brother of Iames was the true ſeruant of Chriſt,
Therfore Iudas Iſcariot was not the brother of Iames.
The ſecond proper.
Timothie was an Euangeliſte:
Paule was not an Euangeliſte: Therefore
Timothy was not Paule.
Of the 2. ſorte, Of a leſſe playne Sillogiſme or more fullie expreſſed.
In the ſeconde kinde, the reaſon founde out goeth before in the propoſition, and followeth in the aſſumption affirmatiuelie:
The generall affirmatiue.
Euerie ſinner is ſubiecte to condemnation.
Euerie man is a ſinner: Therefore
Enery man is ſubiect to condemnation.
The generall negatiue.
No ſinner is iuſtified by his workes:
Euerie man is a ſinner, Therefore
No man is iuſtified by his workes.
The ſpeciall affirmatiue.
EueryEvery Apoſtle muſt preache the Goſpell:
Paule is an Apoſtle: Therefore
Paule muſt preache the Goſpell.
The ſpeciall negatiue.
No diſſembler was euer approued of God:
Ananias was a diſſembler: Therefore
Ananias was neuer approued of God.
The proper affirmatiue.
The Sonne of God is the true Meſsias:
I am the Sonne of God: Therefore
I am the true Meſsias.
The proper negatiue.
Iohn did not denie Chriſte:
This Euangeliſt is Iohn: Therefore
This Euangeliſte did not denie Chriſte.
Thus much of the ſimple Sillogiſme.
Nowe followeth the compounde.
The fifte Chapter.
THE compounde or double Sillogiſme is, where the whole queſtion maketh the one parte of the propoſition affirmed and compounded, and the argument found out maketh the other parte of the propoſition.
To denie any part in a cōpound Sillogiſme, is to ſet down the cōtradiction thereof.
The compounde Sillogiſme is eyther
Connexiue, or knitting togither.
Diſiunctiue, or ſeuering, or diſioyning.
The knitting togither or connexiue is whoſe propoſition is connexiue or framed with wordes which knitte togither ſentences. This is of two ſortes: The firſt ſorte is, when the former parte of the propoſition, is repeated affirmatiuelie in the aſſumption, and the latter parte in the coucluſion.
If God doo iustifie the faithfull, no man may condemne them.
But God doth iustifie the faithfull, Ergo
No man may condemne them.
Here oftentimes the former parte of the propoſition maketh not the aſſumption, but that which is greater or of more force to conclude then it is.
If the Magistrate do… iustely hate thee for thine offences, then thou oughtest to tremble:
But God of heauen hateth thee iustely for thine offences,
Therefore thou oughteſt to tremble.
The ſame kinde of Syllogiſme is framed by a worde of tyme, whiche hath the ſame forme with the other. As:
If, or ſeeing, or when we are dead with Christe, let vsus liue with him:
But we are dead with Christ,
therefore Let vsus liue with him.
The ſeconde kinde of a knitting or connexiue Sillogiſme.
The ſeconde kinde of a knitting or connexiue Sillogiſme is, when the conſequente or latter parte of the propoſition is denyed in the aſſumption, that the former alſo may be denided in the concluſion. As:
If Abraham were iustified by workes, then he hath to glorie with God:
But he hath not to glorie with God, Therefore
He is not imstified by workes. Rom. 4. 1.
A diſioyning or diſiunctiue Sillogiſme.
It is that whoſe propoſition is diſioyned, and is framed after two ſortes. The firſte doeth denie one parte of the propoſition in the aſſumption, and concludeth the other in the concluſion. As:
A man is iustified, either by workes or fayth:
But not by workes, Therefore
By fayth.
Or thus:
Man is iustified by faith or workes:
But not by workes. Therefore
By faith.
The ſeconde frame is that which is made of a diſioyned axiome, affirmed in both partes, and affirmeth one parte in the aſſumption, that it may denie or take away the other in the concluſion. As thus:
Faithfull men must eyther be ſaued or condemned:
But they ſhalbe ſaued:
Therefore not condemned.
The ſame Sillogiſme is alſo made of a coupled or copulatiue axiome being denied, becauſe it hath the ſame force with a diſioyned axiome.
We can not ſerue both God and Mammon,
But we ſerue God,
Therefore not Mammon.
Or thus:
We can not ſerue both Mannon and God,
But God:
Therefore not Mammon.
Thus much of the certaine frame of prouing or Sillogiſme. Nowe followeth the plaine and perfect way of handling any thing, or Methode.
The ſeuenth Chapter.
METHODE is the iudgement of more axiomes, whereby manie and diuers axiomes being framed according to the properties of an axiome perfectlie or exactlie iudged, are ſo ordered as that the eafieſt and moſte generall be ſet downe firſte, the harder are leſ…e generall next, vntill the whole matter bee ſo conueyed, as all the partes may beſt agree with them ſelues, and bee beſt kepte in memorie.
For as we conſider in an axiome trueth or falſeſhoode in a Sillogiſme, neceſſarie following or not following, ſo in Methode the beſt and perfecteſt, the worſt & troubleſomeſt way to handle a matter.
Therefore according to this perfect way, the definition of that whiche is to bee handled, muſt be firſte ſet downe, and then the diuiſion of the ſame into the members, and the generall properties of the ſame, and then the diuers ſortes of it, if there be anie: ſo proceeding vntill by fitte and apte paſſages or tranſitions, the whole be ſo farre handled, that it can be no more deuided.
A paſſage or tranſition is the bande of Methode, whereby one member of a diuiſion is ioyned to the other, which thing refreſheth the Reader or hearer, and helpeth the memorie. Such is that in the Actes, 1. Chap. 1. The firſte Treatie, Theophilus I hauehave made of all things which Ieſus began to ſay or doo. &c. And ſo goeth to the other hiſtorie of the Actes of the Apoſtles
Examples hereof you may ſee in the diſtribution of the effectes, and in all other things rightly handled, and in the treatiſe of Houſeholde gouernement following.
Nowe this Methode becauſe it is ſo agreeable to reaſon, and eaſie to be practiſed, i… for the moſt parte followed of all writers or ſpeakers, yet ſo as they maye and doo according to their matter, time, place, perſons, and all ſuch circumſtances, wiſely alter, chaunge, or hyde the ſame: and then it is called the hyding or concealing, or crypſis of Methode, whereas they leaue out the former orderly placing of Definitions, Diuiſions, and Tranſitions, & do take in diuers repetitions, declarations, makings lightſome, enlargings, or amplifications, prouings of the thing, preuenting of obiections, outgoing from the matter, called digreſsions, as it ſhall make moſt fitte for their purpoſe. All which ſhall appeare in that which is ſet downe for the practiſe of Logike.
FINIS.